The results of the present work showed that while the mean TPC of the studied bread samples in both districts was higher than the accepted limit, both TC and total yeasts and moulds counts were within the permissible limits. In the same line, from different bakery products, Das et al., (2020) [15] in Bangladesh, found that bakery products were contaminated with heterotrophic bacteria within the range of 104 to 107 CFU/g. All the bakery items were found to harbour fungi within the acceptable microbial limits (ranging between 102 and 103 CFU/g).

In the current study, the mean of all counts recorded in this study (TPC, yeasts and moulds and TC) was higher among uncovered bread samples, those handled without gloves and those displayed outside the shop than their counterparts. Similar results were reported in Pakistan [16] and Bangladesh [17].

In accordance with the results of this study, a recent study conducted by Marutha and Chelule (2020) [18] concluded that selling uncovered food in open space exposed food to microbes, heat, and dust, which compromised food safety. A high frequency of contamination in packed and unpacked bread may be attributed to ineffective and inefficient packaging of products. Also, local bakeries depend on manual or hand wrapping for the packaging of bakery products which put the products at great risk of microbial contamination from the hands of packaging employees [12]. The presence of coliform organisms in food depicts a deplorable state of poor hygiene and sanitary practices employed in the processing and packaging of this food product [19].

In the present study, flatbread showed the highest level of contamination compared to Fino bread and toast in terms of TPC, total yeast and moulds as well as TC. This can be explained by less hygienic measures adopted: flatbread was displayed outside the shop, mostly uncovered and handled without gloves. Similarly, Riba et al., (2010) [20] concluded that the microbial contamination of bread samples may occur after the baking procedure of bread during hand manipulation and cutting, or as a result of keeping it in unfavorable conditions.

In contrast, Sami et al., (2020) [21] found that flour, dough and bread samples collected from bulk bread had higher counts of total bacteria than those of flatbread. However, samples collected from flatbread had higher counts of moulds. The total bacterial and moulds counts in studied bread samples were lower than the standards announced by the Institute of Standards and Industrial Research of Iran.

In the present work, the frequency of bakery workers using gloves was lower than those not using gloves during bread handling (39.3% versus 60.7%, respectively). Similarly, a descriptive cross-sectional study conducted by Olusegun et al., (2015) [22] in Nigeria, reported that among the bakery workers, 45% were wearing hand gloves regularly while 15% were using them occasionally. Interestingly, 45% did not see any reason why they should use gloves. This may be attributed to a lack of awareness of the importance of glove usage during handling ready-made food and finished bread.

In the current study, using gloves for the unpacked bread was accompanied by a lower mean TPC and yeasts and moulds than that without using gloves with no statistically significant difference. Also, the mean of TC was significantly lower when using gloves than without using gloves. Our results emphasized the importance of using gloves during bread handling.

Comparing the two districts involved in the present investigation, the means of TPC and total yeasts and moulds were significantly higher among bread samples collected from Al Montaza District compared to Sharq District. Also, the frequency of detection of S. aureus was higher among bread samples collected from Al Montaza. These results may be explained by a higher percentage of unpacked bread displayed outside the shop and handled without gloves in Al Montaza District.

In the present study, there was a statistically significant difference between the different bread locations in terms of the presence of S. aureus. Lack of aseptic handling and personal hygiene can result in the contamination of bread and flour with such bacteria. However, their incidence is not always regarded as hazardous to consumers; as only S. aureus producing enterotoxin may cause food-borne diseases [16]. In a study conducted in Nigeria, Daniyan and Nwokwu (2011) [23] observed S. aureus count in different stages of bread production. After baking they found 2.20×104 CFU/g S. aureus in bread samples. It might have been introduced by the handler being a normal flora on human skin.

Data from the present study revealed that there was contamination in both packed and unpacked bread which may pose a hazard to consumers. Unacceptable levels of bacteria reported in this study may be due to poor hygienic practices, dirty equipment, and polluted environments of processing and storage areas. Better manufacturing and packaging initiatives can be introduced to avoid related food safety concerns in the future. The microbiological quality of bread must be enhanced to provide safe food and better health to consumers.

We did not assess the enterotoxin production by the detected S. aureus. We did not follow the microbial counts over time.