Girls involved in the youth punishment system (YPS) comprise a particularly underserved, understudied, and marginalized group in the United States (Quinn et al., 2020, Quinn et al., 2022, Sichel et al., 2021). Many adolescent girls of color in detention (27–32%) report histories of gang membership and affiliation that is related to an increase in problematic substance use and sexual risk behaviors (Crosby et al., 2006, Logan-Greene et al., 2021, Voisin et al., 2014). Of note, Black American adolescent girls in the YPS experience disparate sexual and reproductive health (SRH) outcomes despite the institutional requirements to ensure their health needs are addressed while detained or incarcerated (Rules for the Protection of Juveniles Deprived of their Liberty, 1990, Tam et al., 2019). High SRH rates as well as abuse and trauma are associated with their law-breaking behavior(s) and increase the risk of substance misuse and sexual risk, i.e., sexually transmitted infections (STIs) and HIV (Quinn et al., 2022, Tam et al., 2019). Scholars note the need to focus on system-involved girls with unmet SRH needs as meeting their needs would have a significant public health impact, especially as the number of Black girls in the YPS persists (Ehrmann et al., 2019, Hockenberry and Puzzanchera, 2017; Sherman et al., 2015). Establishing the correlates of their substance misuse behaviors is a necessary first step to develop effective services and to intervene at the appropriate point in the YPS and to prevent future substance misuse, as well as delinquency, undesired STIs, and the spread of HIV (Andrews & Bonta, 2010; Quinn et al., 2022, Tam et al., 2019). Efrati and colleagues (2022) suggest that research is needed to investigate heterogeneity of substance misuse among women (and girls) and its association with sexual behavior. This study addresses these gaps in the existing literature by examining the degree to which history of abuse, trauma, gang involvement, and risky sex (while on drugs) correlate with substance misuse among Black girls with YPS involvement. Further, the selection of these variables was informed by the extant literature and theoretical considerations.

In the United States, over one million adolescents were diagnosed with a substance use disorder in 2016 indicating substance misuse is a major public health issue (Welty et al., 2019). Early substance misuse has been linked with higher rates of mental illness, e.g., depressive symptomology, depression, suicide behavior (Lynskey et al., 2004, Otten et al., 2019), declining academic performance (Cox et al., 2007, McCluskey et al., 2002), long-term impairment of psychosocial functioning (Bava and Tapert, 2010, Englund et al., 2013; Rhode et al., 2007). Research also suggests that girls who have histories of childhood trauma are more likely to engage in substance misuse (Smith & Saldana, 2013). For example, Ahmad and Mazlan (2014) conducted a study with a sample of incarcerated youth, and they found a relationship between substance misuse and childhood trauma for girls but not boys. Yet, few studies explicitly examine the relationship between correlates of system-involvement and Black girls’ substance misuse (Lopez & Nuño, 2016). Another study noted 20% of African American young women met the criteria for a substance use disorder (Welcher-Brewer et al., 2011). Some scholars note the role of concentrated poverty in some disadvantaged communities that is related to drug use among young urban females given the high incidence of community violence and victimization (McGee and Foriest, 2009, McGee et al., 2018).

Trauma is a major public health concern and may also include maltreatment (i.e., physical, sexual, and emotional abuse, as well as neglect) and/or domestic and community violence exposure (Suarez et al., 2011). King et al. (2011) discovered the likelihood of substance misuse for girls in detention increased with reported physical and sexual abuse histories. Specifically, of the girls in detention who had not reported maltreatment, 29% experienced a substance use disorder. Of those who suffered moderate physical abuse, severe physical abuse, or sexual abuse, nearly half experienced a substance use disorder, respectively. In another study of African American youth, including girls in the YPS they were noted as having significantly higher rates of adverse childhood experiences—ACEs, including sexual abuse, physical abuse or neglect, exposure to or witnessing violence, etc. (1998) and mental health diagnoses at baseline and increased mental health utilization across time unlike African American boys (Williams-Butler et al., 2022). These findings suggest that trauma histories contribute to substance misuse problems, and the presence of numerous risk factors increases the likelihood of law-breaking behavior (King et al., 2011).

The prevalence of high-risk substance misuse and risky sex tends to peak later in adolescence and young adulthood. Black female adolescents between the ages of 14 and 19 have the highest rates of STIs in the United States and tend to be more likely to have adverse health outcomes associated with SRH compared to other races of females in their age groups (Opara et al., 2020). Previous studies have also noted that girls who had an adult boyfriend (partner) also engaged in substance misuse (Mezzich et al., 1997). Adolescent females in the YPS have high prevalence of HIV and other sexual behavior risk factors, including family dysfunction, trauma and sexual abuse, mental health and substance abuse problems, and risky sexual behaviors (Davis & DiClemente, 2015). Higher engagement in sexual risk behaviors translates to a higher risk for STIs/HIV transmission (Tam et al., 2019).

Research studies suggest several factors associated with girls’ involvement with gangs, including the role of disadvantaged neighborhoods, families with multiple problems, i.e., violence exposure, drug, and alcohol abuse, neglect, and affiliation with peers who are delinquent and/or gang-involved (Hubbard and Pratt, 2002, O’Neal et al., 2016, Snyder and Sickmund, 2006). Another study with focus group participants suggested neighborhood violence is so severe some girls may feel forced to make the decision between being victimized by strangers or members of their own gangs (Voisin et al., 2014). Thus, gangs are the most dramatic example of the damaging effects of peer influence on a youth’s behavior (O’Brien et al., 2013), and girls are often involved with gangs because of relationships with their members (e.g., girlfriend, sister, daughter) even if they were not in the gang themselves (Chesney-Lind, 2013).

We assessed the correlates associated with Black girls’ substance misuse to establish points to intervene with them effectively (Quinn et al., 2020, Quinn et al., 2022). We believe this work is important because Black girls are overrepresented in the YPS in the United States, such that there is likely a disproportionate effect on their overall health given their trauma and abuse histories (Chesney-Lind & Sheldon, 1998; King et al., 2011, Robertson et al., 2011, Tolou-Shams et al., 2019, Zona and Milan, 2011). Previous studies with Black girls in detention have noted that they often have histories of trauma and PTSD (Kim et al., 2020, Logan-Greene et al., 2018, Quinn et al., 2020). Within the context of the current study, we seek to examine correlates of Black girls’ problems with drug use and the associations with trauma history, history of abuse, gang involvement, age, and government assistance. Of note, is the need to focus on both individual as well as macro—structural inequalities that impact their health and well-being. Numerous related factors influence health disparities across racial groups who experience societal disadvantage. Black girls are overrepresented in the YPS and make up close to half of adolescent females in detention (Quinn et al., 2020, Snyder and Sickmund, 2006, Tam et al., 2019) even though youth arrest rates have dropped to their lowest in 40 years for males (Puzzanchera, 2020, Sherman and Balck, 2015).