1 Abbott et al. (2016) To examine expectations & experiences of GP care of women leaving prison Women (n = 29) interviewed pre & post and 1–6 months postrelease from prison Interviews with thematic analysis and the candidacy framework

1. Needs & vulnerability postrelease

2. Postrelease continuity of care

3. Expectations & experiences of GP services

2 Abbott et al. (2017) Medical homelessness and candidacy: women transiting between prison and community care 29 women interviewed postrelease from prison Interviews with thematic analysis and candidacy theoretical framework

1. Prison as an opportunity to improve health

2. Stigma in and out of prison

3. Feeling let down by health care providers

3 Cuesta-Briand et al. (2014) Explores experiences of diabetes care & inequities in clinical outcomes for the disadvantaged Indigenous and nonindigenous groups socioeconomically disadvantaged populations. Focus groups + in-depth interviews interpretive influenced by a critical paradigm using design of conflict theory

1. Preferences for Aboriginal Controlled Community Health Organisations (ACCHO)

2. Perceptions of need for health care services varied greatly

3. Previous negative health care seeking experiences

4. Lack of information & awareness of key services of potential benefit

5. Cost as a barrier to service access

4 Freeman et al. (2014) Study experiences of primary health services amongst disadvantaged groups 65 indigenous & nonindigenous participants from disadvantaged backgrounds Community capacity workshops (Labonte and Laverack)

1. Inclusivity

2. Empowerment

5 Pallotta-Chiarolli and Martin (2009) To explore mental health of bisexual- identifying & behaving adolescents & young people 30 adolescent/young people (15–25 years) identifying as bisexual Semistructured interviews

1. Problematic representation

2. Discrimination

3. Access & use of health services

6 Black et al. (2018) To identify what factors hinder or enable referrals between social & health care for homeless youth with mental health problems 10 homeless youth in-depth interviews; phenomenological design

1. Referral barriers—lack of follow-up, abrupt discharge, ‘treated like a number’

2. Referral facilitators—support, advocacy, client-centred care

7 Darbyshire et al. (2006) Describe the experiences of young homeless people and their engagement with health and social care services 10 people (7 female, 3 male) aged between 16 & 24 years who identified as homeless with experience of mental health problems Semistructured interviews, theory from childhood youth studies

1. Labelling

2. Hasty assessment

3. Lack of explanations

4. Lack of personal control

5. Poor service co-ordination

6. Trust & respect as cornerstones of a therapeutic relationship

7. Feeling heard

8 Robards et al. (2019) To understand how marginalized youth navigate the health system and the role of technology in this navigation 41 young people (mean age 19 years) belonging to one or more marginalized groups: rural/remote dwelling; homeless; Aboriginal; sexuality/gender diverse; refugee background—with a chronic/complex health condition and/or disability Qualitative arm of the larger mixed-methods project: 4 interviews over a 14-month period

1. Technology provides opportunities for service engagement

2. Convenience, engagement, affordability & perceived effectiveness

3. Discrimination leading to poor care

4. Multiple marginalization provides greater challenges

5. Acknowledged health system fragmentation mitigated by navigation support

9 Jiwrajka et al. (2017) A focus on cultural and language barriers in the delivery of health care A Burmese refugee woman who had fled Ethno-religious persecution with a recent diagnosis of type 2 diabetes Case report with a qualitative component

1. Confusion about diagnosis

2. Dangers of miscommunication for health outcomes

10 McBride et al. (2017) Description of a refugee health service and clients' experiences 18 refugees (16 male, 2 female) Mixed methods: semistructured interviews

1. Appreciation for access to health care

2. Recognized benefit of integrated care

3. Experiences of culturally competent care

11 Metusela et al. (2017) Examining experiences of sexual & reproductive health of migrant & refugee women from diverse cultural & religious backgrounds 169 migrant & refugee women (mean age 35 years) In-depth interviews, focus groups utilizing social constructivist epistemology employing thematic analysis

1. Lack of knowledge about sexual/reproductive health & screening

2. Cultural barriers to accessing sexual/reproductive health knowledge

3. Negative sexual/reproductive health outcomes

12 McMichael and Gifford (2010) Reports on sexual health literacy amongst recently arrived refugee youth 142 refugees between 16 and 24 years old (67 males, 75 females) Focus group discussions & in-depth interviews

1. Inadequate information on STI's & HIV

2. Taking risks, taking care: contraception, abstinence, trusting sexual relationships, avoiding risky ‘types’

13 Gholizadeh et al. (2011) To understand the lack of service utilization in cardiovascular health amongst middle eastern women 66 participants mean age 44 years Focus groups; constructionism, interpretivism & grounded theory

1. Perceptions of CVD risk-fatalism

2. Stress & acculturation

3. Cultural barriers to risk-reducing behaviours

14 Rose and Harris (2015) Explore the levels of self-management support from GP's towards ethnically diverse groups with diabetes 28 diabetes patients, Arabic speaking (n = 11), Vietnamese speaking (n = 8), English speaking (n = 9) Semistructured interviews phenomenological analysis

1. Experiences of GP information quality

2. Experiences of GP consultation style

15 Maneze et al. (2018) Explore the way Filipino migrants experience the management of their chronic health conditions within the context of living in a host country 58 Filipino-Australian migrants; mean age 67 years; 88% female; chronic diseases: hypertension (91%), heart disease, diabetes, comorbidities in 49% of participants Qualitative components of a larger mixed-methods study: focus group, exploratory sequential design with thematic analysis

1. Perceptions of abundance scarcity within an Australian health care system

2. Juggling self-care responsibilities within the Australian lifestyle

16 Prasad-Ildes and Ramirez (2006) To consult with CALD consumers & glean their perceptions of mental illness prevention 28 participants from Arabic & Spanish speaking backgrounds as well as participants from Bosnia, Iran and Filipinas with experiences of mental illness Bespoke instrument design—consumer consultation

1. Informed mental illness awareness support for community & religious leaders

2. Acculturation issues—language, lifestyle

3. Intergenerational differences—support for children

17 Wynaden et al. (2005) To understand the values & beliefs of people from Asian communities about mental illness 10 participants (3 women, 7 men) were recruited by convenience sampling, the majority were health care workers and members of the study community Semistructured interviews content analysis

1. Shame & stigma

2. Causes of mental illness

3. Family reputation

4. Hiding up

5. Seeking help

6. Lack of collaboration

18 Körner (2007) Reporting on circumstances of late HIV diagnosis and perceptions of HIV risk for people from diverse cultural backgrounds 29 participants were recruited from a multicultural HIV/AIDS and Hep C health service. 22 men, 7 women. Semistructured interviews; grounded theory—iterative analysis

1. Circumstances of diagnosis

2. Meaning of HIV diagnosis

3. Perceptions of risk

19 Vatcharavongvan et al. (2014) To explore the health needs of both Thai women and men, including physical, mental, familial & social aspects of health

Purposefully sampled participants

(n = 21), 17 women & 3 men. Mean age 53 years

Gender-segregated focus groups; thematic content analysis

1. Positive experiences in Australia

2. Physical health problems

3. Mental health problems

4. Familial & social problems

20 Ho and Maher (2008) To explore the influence of cultural beliefs and practices on the vulnerability to blood-borne viral infections 58 participants were recruited through a mix of snowball & theoretical sampling; 86% male, mean age 31 years In-depth interviews, observation & fieldnotes

1. Health beliefs

2. Cultural characteristics

3. Knowledge & environmental constraints

4. Structural & institutional factors

21 Coupland et al. (2009) Explore barriers to HCV treatment uptake and inform policy & practice that promote treatment amongst Indo-Chinese IDU's 23 participants from Cambodia (n = 5), Laos (n = 8) & Vietnam (n = 10). 6 female, 17 male Fieldwork observation, in-depth interview, inductive analysis, constructivist theoretical framework, grounded theory

1. Barriers to HCV treatment uptake

2. A ‘one-off’ chance for subsidized treatment

3. Uncertainty about the capacity to complete treatment: lack of support & resources

4. Reluctance to access the health system

5. Institutional barriers to accessing treatment

22 Kendall and Barnett (2015) Understanding the factors that influence the participation of Aboriginal people in their use of mainstream health services 34 Aboriginal participants (the total number for the study was 39, including nominated health workers. The participant population were from rural, regional & metropolitan areas (n = 12) Community-based participatory approach—focus groups, interviews. Constructivist grounded theory, constant comparison

1. Historical reluctance to engage with the medical system

2. Cultural incompetence of the system

3. Colonial communication styles

4. Clash with the collective approach to disease

5. Health being more than a medical state

23 Thompson et al. (2009) To explore and describe the role that alcohol plays in the lives of HIV + Aboriginal people in W.A. 20 Aboriginal participants (4 males, 16 females) mean age 33 years. Participants are both rural (n = 6) & metropolitan (n = 14) residing Semistructured interviews, thematic analysis

1. ‘Good times’: the days before HIV

2. ‘Too drunk and stupid’: alcohol as a risk for acquiring HIV

3. ‘The most biggest shock of my life’: diagnosis during treatment for alcohol misuse

4. ‘Escape but it still knocks at your door’: coping with the diagnosis

5. ‘Only after I got drunk’: helping with disclosure

6. ‘I slowed right down’: changing lifestyle

7. Alcohol interfering/coping with medication; as a social activity

24 Treloar et al. (2016) To add to the research on HCV treatment and policy development with the aim of contributing programmes relevant to Aboriginal people

39 Aboriginal people with HCV, 15 female, 1 transgender; mean age 40 years

Recruitment via ACCHS, hospital clinics treating HCV, needle and syringe programmes, drug & alcohol services, community health & social services

Telephone interview, thematic analysis

1. Lack of information, lack of support

2. Valuing health

3. Concerns about side effects

4. Treatment experiences: the anticipation of difficulties vs. positive experience & ACCHS

25 Wallace et al. (2018) Explore patient experiences of HCV treatment & cure and explore barriers to treatment uptake amongst Aboriginals 18 people with HCV who had accessed treatment through the Victorian Aboriginal Health Service—9 males, 9 females Semistructured interviews

1. Context of HCV within a community: shame around the transmission

2. Context of the liver clinic within VAHS: patient-centred, safe, not medicalized

3. Being treated: direct health benefits

26 Dimer et al. (2013) Evaluation of the implementation of a culturally appropriate cardiac rehab model assessing uptake, lifestyle risk factors 48 Aboriginal participants at an Aboriginal Medical Service (AMS) for cardiac rehabilitation—64% female Mixed methods: interviews and ‘yarning’ sessions

1. Overwhelming preference for interventions delivered within AMS

2. Community support for exercise and health education as prevention