Review: The impact of climate change awareness on children's mental well‐being and negative emotions – a scoping review

Introduction

Climate change has, and will continue to have, a profound effect on human health (Stott, Smith, Williams, & Godlee, 2019). The United Nations Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC) states that the detrimental consequences of climate change include extreme weather, rising sea levels, species loss, wildfires, drought, and reduced air quality (IPCC, 2018). The IPCC (2018) further warned that these events will increase water- and vector-borne diseases, illnesses, and injuries. While climate change is a well-established threat to physical health, there are also implications for mental health and well-being (Berry, Bowen, & Kjellstrom, 2010; Hayes, Blashki, Wiseman, Burke, & Reifels, 2018; Manning & Clayton, 2018; Reser & Swim, 2011). In 2017, the American Psychological Association (with the organizations Climate for Health and ecoAmerica) released a report detailing how climate change is a fundamental issue for mental health (Clayton, Manning, Krygsman, & Speiser, 2017). The potential impacts are extensive, including anxiety, distress, depression, violence, a sense of helplessness, and intense feelings of loss (Clayton et al., 2017; Fritze, Blashki, Burke, & Wiseman, 2008). Broadly, it is considered that climate change impacts mental well-being in three ways (Hayes et al., 2018). First, acute climate events can directly impact the mental well-being of those in affected communities, such as trauma from experiencing a climate change-related extreme weather event. Second, indirect effects may occur due to shifts in social, economic, and environmental determinants of mental well-being, such as stress stemming from reduced income security. Third, people may also experience negative emotional responses, such as distress, stemming from an overarching awareness of the imminent threats to the planet due to climate change, even when they have not directly experienced a climate change-related event (Fritze et al., 2008; Hayes et al., 2018).

Herein, we use the term mental well-being broadly and not to refer specifically to any clinical diagnosis. There is no universally accepted definition of mental well-being, but generally it is thought to include an overall positive state of emotions, life satisfaction, fulfillment, and positive functioning (CDC, 2018; Courtwright, Flynn Makic, & Jones, 2020). It is vital to note up front that experiencing negative emotional responses (e.g., worry, anxiety, etc.) to the climate crisis is a rational, and potentially functional, reaction to the serious issues facing the planet (Clayton, 2020; Royal College of Psychiatrists, 2020). Emotional reactions to climate change may be adaptive or maladaptive. For example, anxiety can be adaptive and functional in signaling an on-coming threat so that an individual can prepare (Clayton, 2020). As Ojala and Bengtsson (2019, p. 926–927) state, ‘climate change is one of the most serious environmental problems, and if it is not seen as a threat, people will hardly feel motivated to search for solutions to this problem and act’. However, negative emotional responses to an awareness of climate change and its potential consequences may also be overwhelming and difficult for people to deal with (Royal College of Psychiatrists, 2020), and can also be maladaptive by interfering with an individual’s ability to function (Clayton, 2020).

Learning about climate change, and its impending effects, is an emotional experience (Ojala, 2012b). The distress, anxiety, worry, and/or fear that stem from an overarching awareness of climate change are often considered to be related to the broader concept of ‘psychoterratic syndromes’. This concept was first introduced by the environmental philosopher, Glenn Albrecht, and is defined broadly as ‘psychological responses to negative changes to the state of the Earth’ (Albrecht, 2011, p. 48). Terms such as eco anxiety, climate anxiety, and eco distress are often used to describe these negative responses. Also, the related term ‘solastalgia’, broadly defined as distress from the transformation and degradation of one’s home environment, also falls into psychoterratic syndromes (Albrecht, 2019; Albrecht et al., 2007; Galway, Beery, Jones-Casey, & Tasala, 2019). Such concepts are gaining traction in print and online media (Rao, 2019; Taylor & Murray, 2020). For example, Grist Magazine declared climate anxiety as the biggest pop-culture trend of the year in 2019 (McGinn, 2019). Additionally, there is a growing recognition of the impact of climate change awareness on mental well-being among researchers and mental health professionals. For instance, the American Psychological Association has defined eco anxiety as ‘a chronic fear of environmental doom’ (Clayton et al., 2017, p.68); while the Royal College of Psychiatrists defines eco distress among young people as ‘the wide range of emotions and thoughts young people may experience when they hear bad news about our planet and the environment’ (Royal College of Psychiatrists, 2020, para. 3). Moreover, mental health professionals have reported counseling individuals dealing with distress about climate change (Clayton et al., 2017; Royal College of Psychiatrists, 2020).

Children are a disproportionately at-risk, yet understudied, group when it comes to the effects of climate change. While this population will become the decision-makers of the future and be left with the consequences of the changing climate, research largely overlooks the impact climate change has on their mental well-being (Fritze et al., 2008; Manning & Clayton, 2018; Ojala, 2012b, 2013; Ojala & Bengtsson, 2019). Late childhood and early adolescence are argued to be key developmental timeframes for gaining interest in global environmental issues, and studies indicate that learning about global problems, like climate change, may trigger feelings of anxiety, helplessness, and hopelessness (Ojala, 2012a). Thus, it is imperative we better understand how children experience climate change on a psychological level (Ojala, 2013).

In the modern society, children grow up hearing about climate change and projections for the future, and they have an awareness of how this affects, or will affect, themselves and others. For example, the National Center for Science Education reported that approximately 75% of American science teachers in public middle and high schools devoted at least one class to climate change (Plutzer et al., 2016). Among those teachers, the majority emphasized potential solutions and/or actions individuals can take to address climate change, although some (25%) gave equal time to perspectives that reject the scientific consensus of climate change being caused by human activities (Plutzer et al., 2016). Furthermore, from 2007 to 2017, media coverage of climate change increased by 78% worldwide (Hayes et al., 2018; Watts et al., 2018).

While children are increasingly aware of climate change and its detrimental effects, they have limited political agency to see their will enacted, as most children are not eligible to vote in national elections. This may further contribute to feelings of low mood, frustration, anxiety, guilt, helplessness, and hopelessness (Royal College of Psychiatrists, 2020; Taylor & Murray, 2020). Over half (57%) of pediatric psychiatrists surveyed in England have counseled children distressed about the climate crisis, according to a survey from the Royal College of Psychiatrists (Royal College of Psychiatrists, 2020). Additionally, in March 2019, hundreds of thousands of students in 2000 cities across 123 countries left school in an act of protest about political inaction regarding climate change, titled Fridays for Future (Stott et al., 2019). This action has since mobilized over 14 million people in 8200 cities globally (Fridays for Future, 2021). The engagement of so many children in these strikes underscores the importance of this issue to this population.

Despite recent indications that an overarching awareness of climate change may impact children’s mental well-being and emotions, this issue is not well understood. Due to the immediate impact that climate change might be having on children’s mental well-being and negative emotions, a review of the current state of the literature is timely. The objectives of this review were to: (a) identify and provide an overview of research regarding the impact of climate change awareness on children’s mental well-being and negative emotions; (b) summarize and clarify the terminology related to climate change awareness and children’s mental well-being and negative emotions; and (c) make recommendations for areas of future research.

Methods

A scoping review was conducted to meet the research objectives of this study. Scoping reviews prove useful when the goal is to map the current state of knowledge in a specific research area (Peters, Godfrey, et al., 2020; Peters, Marnie, et al., 2020). Due to the emerging and interdisciplinary nature of research examining the impact of climate change on children’s mental well-being and negative emotions, such an approach is appropriate as it can identify and bring together research from various fields and disciplines. A protocol was previously published outlining the planned scoping review process (Martin, Reilly, & Gilliland, 2020).

Inclusion and exclusion criteria

This review considered articles that reported on school-aged children (aged 3–19 years). The upper limit was operationally defined in accordance with the World Health Organization’s (2013) definition of a child as a person 19 years of age or younger. Both published and unpublished empirical studies, reviews, editorials/commentaries, and opinion papers were included. This incorporates, but is not limited to, quantitative (e.g., experimental, quasi-experimental, prospective, and retrospective cohort, case–control, and cross-sectional), qualitative (e.g., phenomenology, ethnography, qualitative description, action research, and feminist research), and mixed-methods studies. Articles that covered or discussed adult populations in addition to child populations were included if children were reported on separately.

The context of this review is global, so no inclusion/exclusion criteria were set for geographic region of study; however, the search was limited to articles published in English. No date restrictions were implemented in the search. Articles that did not examine the impact of an overarching awareness of climate change on mental well-being or negative emotions, but rather only direct impacts of an extreme weather event that may be related to climate change were excluded. This was due to the distinct experiences of specific communities that directly experienced an extreme weather event. Where an article included considerations of direct impacts of climate change in addition to impacts from an overarching awareness of climate change on mental well-being or negative emotions, the article was included. In these instances, how studies distinguished overarching awareness of climate change from direct impacts was noted.

As this is a scoping review with the purpose being to summarize the current state of evidence about this issue, rather than to identify and present the highest-quality evidence, no quality assessment was conducted; therefore, no studies were excluded due to quality.

Search strategy

Searches were conducted in eight academic databases (Cochrane Database of Systematic Reviews, CINAHL, Embase, GreenFILE, PubMed, PsycINFO, Web of Science, and Scopus) and three unpublished/grey literature databases (ProQuest Dissertations and Theses, GreyLit.org, and OpenGrey) on January 10th, 2020. Additionally, backward reference selection was conducted to identify articles; this was decided on post hoc as another means of identifying grey literature, because much of the grey literature cited in articles identified from the academic databases was not identified through the grey literature databases. Moreover, an updated search was conducted on April 10th, 2021, to identify more recent studies. The search architecture (Table 1) was developed through a preliminary search of published manuscripts, through discussions by the research team, and following peer reviewer comments on the review protocol (Martin et al., 2020).

Table 1. Search term strategy employed in the scoping review Search number Search terms #1 noft(‘climate change’) OR noft(‘global warming’) #2 noft(‘mental health’) OR noft(‘mental illness’) OR noft(‘mental disorder’) OR noft(‘wellness’) OR noft(‘well-being’) OR noft(‘wellbeing’) OR noft(‘cognitive function’) OR noft(‘eco-anxiety’) OR noft(‘ecoanxiety’) OR noft(‘pretraumatic’) OR noft(‘environmental grief’) OR noft(‘solastalgia’) OR noft(‘ecoparalysis’) OR noft(‘ecostalgia’) OR noft(‘psychoter*’) OR noft(‘cope’) OR noft(‘coping’) OR noft(‘worry’) OR noft(‘distress’) OR noft(‘anxiety’) OR noft(‘psychoterraticratic’) #3 (‘child*’) OR (‘kid*’) OR (‘adolescen*’) OR (‘teen*’) OR (‘youth’) OR (‘young people’) OR (‘school children*’) OR (‘schoolchildren*’) OR (‘school age*’) OR (‘school-age*’) #1 AND #2 AND #3 noft, not full text (i.e., only abstract, title, and key words). Study selection process

All identified records were collated and uploaded into the reference manager software Zotero version 5.0.66, and duplicates were removed. The article details were then imported into the systematic review software Covidence. Titles and abstracts were screened by two reviewers for assessment against the inclusion/exclusion criteria (GM and HE). After screening the titles and abstracts, articles were further assessed for eligibility through full-text screening, and the reason for exclusion was noted. Because disagreements that arose between the reviewers at each stage of the selection process were resolved through discussion, involving a third reviewer to resolve disagreements was not necessary. The results of the search and screening are presented in a Preferred Reporting Items for Systematic Reviews and Meta-analyses Extension for Scoping Reviews (PRISMA-ScR) flow diagram (Tricco et al., 2018) (Figure 1).

image

PRISMA flow diagram of article identification and selection

Data extraction

Data were extracted from articles included in the scoping review by two data extraction tools that were developed for this review by the authors (Martin et al., 2020). These were modified from the Joanna Briggs Institute data extraction form (Peters, Godfrey, et al., 2020; Peters, Marnie, et al., 2020). Data were extracted by one reviewer (GM) and confirmed for accuracy by a second (KR). Details about the population, concepts of mental well-being/negative emotions, geographic location of the study, methodological approach, and key findings relevant to the review objectives and questions were extracted. Specifically, data were extracted from each article, including the following information: author(s); year of publication; country of the study; purpose; population; sample size; methodology; concepts of interest; outcomes/relationships with other factors; and identified knowledge gaps.

Synthesis

A narrative approach was used to synthesize the findings from the scoping review using textual descriptions of the articles (Popay et al., 2006).

Results

The search, conducted in January 2020, yielded a total of 2258 unique documents. Two authors (HE and GM) independently reviewed the titles and had 91% agreement on inclusion for abstract screening (agreed on 2056/2258). Where reviewers did not agree, discussion led to agreement. At the abstract phase, agreement was lower (agreed on 172/242, 71%). But again, all disagreements were easily resolved through discussion. Upon screening the full texts of the 80 articles, 17 met the inclusion criteria and were included in the narrative synthesis (Figure 1). Backwards selection found six articles that met the inclusion criteria, and the search update found an additional ten articles.

Article characteristics

Table 2 presents the data extracted on article characteristics. Of the 33 articles identified, 11 were reviews; nine of these were not systematic, but theoretical in nature (Burke, Sanson, & Van Hoorn, 2018; Chalupka, Anderko, & Pennea, 2020; Clayton, 2020; Fritze et al., 2008; Gifford & Gifford, 2016; McMichael, 2014; Ojala, 2015; Palinkas & Wong, 2020; Sanson, Van Hoorn, & Burke, 2019) and two were scoping reviews (Clemens, von Hirschhausen, & Fegert, 2020; Galway et al., 2019). One scoping review was a broader review of the concept of solastalgia (the authors in this review found few studies that included children and included this as a point of discussion, and it was therefore included) (Galway et al., 2019). The other scoping review examined the broader impacts of climate change on children’s mental health and focused on Europe (Clemens et al., 2020). Additionally, there were five editorials/commentaries and one tutorial identified (Cunsolo et al., 2020; Pinsky, Guerrero, & Livingston, 2020; Sanson, Burke, & Van Hoorn, 2018; Stanley & Farrant, 2015; The Lancet Child & Adolescent Health, 2021; Wu, Snell, & Samji, 2020). Of these 17 articles, all except 1 (Clemens et al., 2020) addressed the global context, while 1 other was global but focused largely on Northern Europe (Ojala, 2015); some reviews and editorials/commentaries emphasized that the impacts of climate change awareness are mostly researched in developed (Burke et al., 2018; Sanson et al., 2019) or high-income countries (McMichael, 2014; Palinkas & Wong, 2020).

Table 2. Data extraction table of article characteristics Author(s) Year Research purpose/question(s) Population (sample size) Research type Country Cultural context Geographic setting Baker et al. 2020 Explore caretaker perceptions of children’s climate change emotions, and the needs and challenges around supporting children. Parents and teachers (n = 141) Mixed methods (survey with open and closed questions) Australia Parents and teachers recruited through environmental, community, or teacher Facebook groups. National Bangsund 2018 How does the use of humor in secondary students’ communications about climate change relate to their feelings and actions toward climate change? Grade 11 students in a leadership program (Sustainability 11) (n = 17) Thesis (mixed methods) Canada The leadership program accepted students from the whole city (i.e., providing socioeconomic diversity) – authors note the students are an engaged population. Vancouver, British Columbia Burke et al. 2018 Review recent evidence on the psychological effects of climate change on children, covering both direct and indirect impacts, and discuss children’s psychological adaptation to climate change. All children – specific ages not given (NA) Literature Review (not systematic) Global All children – authors note children in ‘developing’ countries are more vulnerable to impacts of climate change, but concerns and beliefs are mostly researched in more ‘developed’ countries. Includes any geographic setting Chalupka et al. 2020 Review of climate change, climate justice, and children’s mental health All children – specific ages not given (NA) Literature Review (not systematic) Global All children – authors note the sense of loss is especially felt in Indigenous and subsistence communities and that gradual environmental degradation is especially detrimental to the well-being of children in communities with deep cultural or working ties to the land. Includes any geographic setting Clayton et al. 2017 Help increase awareness of how climate change can impact mental health and provided guidance to engage the public. The report is intended to inform and empower health and medical professionals, community and elected leaders, and the public. No limits – distinguishes children but specific ages not given (NA) Grey literature (report) Global NA Includes any geographic setting Clayton 2020 Discuss the nature of climate anxiety and some evidence for its existence and speculate about ways to address it. No limits – distinguishes children and young people but specific ages not given (NA) Literature Review (not systematic) Global NA Includes any geographic setting Clemens et al. 2020 Provide an overview of potential mental health consequences in children and adolescents from climate change. All children – specific ages not given (NA) Scoping review Europe NA Focused on Europe Cunsolo et al. 2020 A comment on ecological grief and anxiety. No limits – distinguishes children and young people but specific ages not given (NA) Comment Global NA Includes any geographic setting Fritze et al. 2008 Introduce emerging evidence and debate about the relationship between climate change and mental health. No limits – distinguishes children and young people but specific ages not given (NA) Literature Review (not systematic) Global NA Includes any geographic setting Galway et al. 2019 Review scholarly literature on solastalgia and advance conceptual clarity, synthesize the literature, and identify priorities for future research. No limits – distinguishes children and young people but specific ages not given (NA) Scoping review Global NA Includes any geographic setting Gifford and Gifford 2016 Describe some of the effects of climate change on mental health, who is most vulnerable to them, some of the social factors involved, and offers some suggestions for possible solutions. No limits – distinguishes children and young people but specific ages not given (NA) Literature Review (not systematic) Global NA Includes any geographic setting Harker-Schuch et al. 2021 Determine the current opinion state of 12- to 13-year-olds with regard to whether climate change (a) is something to worry about (‘concern’), (b) predominantly has anthropogenic causes (‘anthropogenic’), and (c) is happening now (‘imminence’). 12- to 13-year-olds (n = 463; 78 Austrian and 375 Australian students) Quantitative Australia and Austria Public school students Central urban centers Kowalczewski and Klein 2018 Assess the impact of climate change on Sámi youth health, health care access, and health-seeking behavior. Sámi high school students 16–19 years old (n = 9) Qualitative (focus groups) Norway Both reindeer herding and non-herding teenagers included in focus groups Kautokeino Municipality Kuang and Root 2019 Assess adolescent awareness of climate change as a global issue and whether this awareness leads to symptoms of anxiety and to preliminarily characterize anxiety symptoms if they are present. Patients (ages 12–18 years) in an outpatient child/adolescent psychiatry practice; those acute psychosis or significant developmental delay was excluded (n = 83) Quantitative Not reported Patients in an outpatient child/adolescent psychiatry practice Not reported MacKay et al. 2020 Share the outcomes of research with Indigenous youth (along with family and teachers) from the Mackenzie River Basin who attended the 2018 Conference of the Parties on Climate Change in Katowice to determine the value of their experience. Youth grades 10–11 (n = 4) Qualitative (interviews) Canada Indigenous youth Mackenzie River Basin, Alberta McMichael 2014 A review of climate change and children and risks and gain from inaction/action All children – specific ages not given (NA) Literature Review (not systematic) Global All children – author notes many millions of children in ‘poor countries’ live with the threats of climate change but hear little news. Includes any geographic setting Ojala 2012a Explore how Swedish young people cope with worry and promote hope in relation to climate change. Convenience sample of young people in late childhood/early adolescence (n = 90), and mid-to-late adolescence (n = 146). Early adulthood was also included but results were reported separately. Mixed methods (questionnaires) Sweden No focus on a particular group – children answered a questionnaire at school. Central Sweden in and around a medium-sized municipality Ojala 2012b Explore how Swedish 12-year-olds cope with climate change, and how different coping strategies relate to environmental engagement and well-being. 12-year-olds (n = 293) Quantitative (classroom survey) Sweden Early adolescence Five municipalities in central Sweden Ojala 2013 Explore how Swedish late adolescents cope with global climate change and how these coping strategies relate to subjective well-being (positive affect, negative affect, and life satisfaction) and environmental engagement (environmental efficacy and proenvironmental behavior) Late adolescents (n = 321) Quantitative (classroom survey) Sweden Late adolescence – To attain a representative distribution with respect to socioeconomic factors, both college preparatory and vocational classes, were included in the study. Five municipalities in central Sweden Ojala 2015 Investigate what emotions young people experience, how they cope, and how coping strategies are related to environmental efficacy, environmental engagement, and subjective wellbeing. All children – specific ages not given (NA) Literature Review (not systematic) Global NA Mainly focused on Northern Europe Ojala and Bengtsson 2018 Examine how coping with climate change among Swedish adolescents relates to proenvironmental behavior, as well as to communication patterns with parents and friends about societal and environmental issues. Senior high school students in 39 schools (n = 705) Quantitative (online survey) Sweden Late adolescence –Both vocational and college-preparatory classes were targeted. From the North to the South of Sweden Palinkas and Wong 2020 Summarize recent developments in understanding mental health impacts of three forms of climate change to mental health: (1) extreme weather events; (2) subacute weather events (e.g., droughts or heatwaves lasting for months or years), (3) existential threats from long-lasting changes. No limits – distinguishes children and young people but specific ages not given (NA) Literature Review (not systematic) Global Authors note young people in high-income countries are especially vulnerable to psychoterratic syndromes. Includes any geographic setting Pinsky et al. 2020 Discuss child and adolescent psychiatrists in the era of the climate crisis. All children – specific ages not given (NA) Editorial Global NA Includes any geographic setting Sanson et al. 2018 Draw together research on the impacts of climate change on children and youth, and suggests how parents, and parenting researchers, educators, and professionals, can engage in climate change. All children – specific ages not given (distinguishes between younger children vs. older children and adolescents) (NA) Tutorial Global NA Includes any geographic setting Sanson et al. 2019 A review of the impacts of climate change on children and youth including responses to support them from a child development professional perspective All children – specific ages not given (distinguishes between younger children vs. older children and adolescents) (NA) Literature Review (not systematic) Global All children – authors distinguish between ‘developed’ and ‘developing’. Includes any geographic setting Stanley and Farrant 2015 Describe the likely impacts on children's health and well-being from climate change based on the solid science of environmental child health. All children – specific ages not given (NA) Commentary Global NA Includes any geographic setting Stevenson and Peterson 2016 Examined how climate change hope, despair, and concern predict proenvironmental behavior Middle school children (aged 11–15) (n = 1486) Quantitative (school survey) US School children North Carolina Strife 2012 To fill the scholarly gap in our understanding of children’s environmental concerns by voicing children’s feelings about environmental problems School children (aged 10–12) (n = 50) Qualitative (interviews) US School children Denver Strohmeier et al. 2017 Investigate whether demographic variables, efficacy beliefs, visions, and worries are associated with four different forms of (dis)engagement with the European Union (EU) European students (aged 16–19) (n = 2361); data were also collected for students aged 20–25 but results were separated. Quantitative Albania, Austria, German, Italy, Romania, Spain, UK

留言 (0)

沒有登入
gif