Systemic inflammation contributes to the pathogenesis of many noncommunicable diseases. Additionally, postprandial inflammation can exacerbate systemic inflammation. These emphasizes the need to examine inflammation in both fasting and postprandial states, to identify modifiable factors to alleviate inflammation. This study investigated a comprehensive list of factors spanning from fetal stage to young-adulthood against inflammation levels at fasting (chronic inflammation) and postprandial states (meal-induced transient inflammation). A meal challenge was undertaken in 18-year-olds (n = 298), and inflammation was assessed using the robust GlycA biomarker. Associations between inflammation and various factors were observed, some of which were sex-specific; e.g. for alcohol consumption and smoking, the associations were significantly stronger in females. Moreover, novel associations from gestation and early life (e.g. pregnancy smoking) were identified. Our findings highlight factors that should inform dietary and lifestyle interventions aimed at reducing systemic inflammation, and highlight the importance of considering inflammation in precision nutrition practices.

The authors have declared no competing interest.

COPSAC is supported by both private and public research funds, all of which are detailed on our website, www.copsac.com. Core support has been provided by the Lundbeck Foundation, the Danish Ministry of Health, the Danish Council for Strategic Research, and the Capital Region Research Foundation. No pharmaceutical companies were involved in this study. The funding agencies had no role in the design or conduct of the study, nor in the collection, management, interpretation of the data, or in the preparation, review, or approval of the manuscript. Additionally, MAR received funding from the Novo Nordisk Foundation (NNF21OC0068517).

I confirm all relevant ethical guidelines have been followed, and any necessary IRB and/or ethics committee approvals have been obtained.

Yes

The details of the IRB/oversight body that provided approval or exemption for the research described are given below:

The study was approved by the Ethics Committee in Region Hovedstadens in Denmark (H-16040846) and the Danish Data Protection Agency (2015-41-3696).

I confirm that all necessary patient/participant consent has been obtained and the appropriate institutional forms have been archived, and that any patient/participant/sample identifiers included were not known to anyone (e.g., hospital staff, patients or participants themselves) outside the research group so cannot be used to identify individuals.

Yes

I understand that all clinical trials and any other prospective interventional studies must be registered with an ICMJE-approved registry, such as ClinicalTrials.gov. I confirm that any such study reported in the manuscript has been registered and the trial registration ID is provided (note: if posting a prospective study registered retrospectively, please provide a statement in the trial ID field explaining why the study was not registered in advance).

Yes

I have followed all appropriate research reporting guidelines, such as any relevant EQUATOR Network research reporting checklist(s) and other pertinent material, if applicable.

Yes

All data produced in the present study are available upon reasonable request to the authors