Given the extensive nature of the interviews, we present a condensed results section here, focusing on novel insights and the most impactful themes. Broader but well-documented phenomena and less frequent observations are detailed in Supplementary Materials 3. We recommend accessing the extended results if a more in-depth understanding is wanted.

We recruited a sample of 30 young adults for the study, with 53.3% identifying as female and 46.7% as male. The average age was 28 years (SD = 3 years, range 24–34 years). The sample comprised individuals from diverse ethnic backgrounds, with 40% from non-White ethnic groups. Sample characteristics are presented in Fig. 1. Mental health data collected during the latest NSPN COVID-19 survey conducted from July to October 2022, showed, amongst those interviewed, the average GAD-7 score was 5.9 (SD = 4.0) and the PHQ-9 score was 6.5 (SD = 4.8). Notably, 17% of interview participants reported anxiety scores and 23% depression scores that met National Health Service (NHS) guidelines for clinical treatment [19]. Additionally, using the UCLA Loneliness Scale, 50% of participants crossed the threshold for experiencing loneliness.

Fig. 1

Sample characteristics of NSPN COVID-19 interview participants

Our findings, primarily centred on the impact of the COVID-19 pandemic on mental health and wellbeing, are organised into four key domains. These domains explore the pandemic’s influence on mental health as well as its effects through various life aspects such as social networks and dynamics or the impact on work and education.

Domain 1: pandemic general impactInitial impact and response

Initially, most participants reported being unconcerned about COVID-19. However, their perception changed after personal experiences such as hearing about people they knew passing away or being hospitalised. Concerns were predominately centred not around catching the virus but transmitting it. Simultaneously, some expressed contradicting feelings of anxiety combined with a short-lived excitement: “There was a slight element of…this is relatively new. It’s…like when there’s a power cut and everyone starts lighting candles, it’s…slightly exciting for a short period of time. But I think there was a lot of anxiety” [P17, Male, 27 years].

Impact on cultural and societal behaviours and values

Many participants described feeling pessimistic about the future, criticising the government's lack of seriousness in handling the pandemic. Additionally, some noted an increase in political division within the country: “I would say there's just a lot more political division. So, when I meet new people, sometimes I find that they might disagree with me on certain topics and that makes it a bit awkward” [P26, Female, 28 years]. Nonetheless, many felt a positive shift in some societal attitudes, particular in relation to mental health: “I found that when I started talking about it [mental health], …people started talking about it to me more. It was like this wonderful door had been opened” [P16, Male, 30 years].

Domain 2: social networks & dynamicsFamily life and relationship impact

Almost half of participants stayed or moved back in with their parents, often delaying other life plans. Many were still living with their parents at the time of interview, i.e., more than two years after the initial outbreak. Many participants felt they grew closer to family members and partners. For some, the constant reminder of mortality strengthened bonds, but also facing challenges together was often described as solidifying relationships: “So, it's definitely made me closer to my partner, because that was quite a big test suddenly being home 24/7” [P25, Female, 28 years]. Nevertheless, some participants experienced heightened conflicts: “I actually share a room with my older brother…I did start to feel like a lot of like bitterness like a bit of hatred inside” [P20, Male, 24 years]. Some participants further faced family conflicts over differing views on the COVID-19 vaccine, for some, leading to avoiding the topic or hiding their vaccination status: “When the vaccines came out, that's when we started to have some issues because I was pro-vaccine. A lot of them weren't…we don't discuss it now. Yes, it bothered me a lot when some of them refused to take the vaccine” [P26, Female, 28 years].

Friendship impact

Most participants reported feeling a stronger bond with close friends but simultaneously distancing themselves from more peripheral friends: “I think the key that came out of lockdown was that I kept the friends that were willing to stick by me and didn’t with the others. And I think that’s very good” [P07, Male, 25 years]. Some participants mentioned that not being able to share important milestones with their friends during the pandemic made it harder to maintain their friendships and regain their pre-pandemic closeness: “So a lot of my friends matured to a point where they were concentrating on their own families or starting families, which was really lovely, but obviously we couldn't see or be a part of that journey.” [P29, Female, 30 years].

Domain 3: mental health & wellbeingMental health challenges

Particularly during the early stages of the pandemic, many participants struggled with increased feelings of anxiety, isolation, and uncertainty. Those with pre-existing mental health conditions experienced amplified struggles: “I was breaking down in every possible way that I can think of. I would feel constantly down. I would feel let down and lonely and unwanted, unloved” [P05, Female, 27 years]. Additionally, those looking after someone with mental health problems reported a significant strain on their own wellbeing: “So, he [partner] was at that stage where he was one of those people that was just in bed and couldn't really do anything…he was not very much in survival mode. So, there was a huge demand on me for about a year” [P21, Female, 28 years].

Furthermore, some participants lost loved ones during the pandemic and sought therapy. Others reported being deeply affected by restrictions preventing hospital visits: “So, that was…the culmination of 15 months of not seeing someone, one of the most important women in your life and then she’s got stage 3 cancer…that’s nuclear at that point. And 15 months of not seeing your own mother, it feels like I’ve been robbed of that time by something that’s not in my control” [P16, Male, 30 years].

Moreover, participants described varied reactions to testing positive for COVID-19, a few reported feeling initial intense fear and anxiety, especially those with pre-existing health conditions: “The first couple of days it hit me hard. Thinking, what if I don’t make it through this?” [P13, Male, 32 years]. Even though the majority did not report experiencing prolonged symptoms after their infection, those who did, faced significant consequences: "Foggy head…if you haven’t slept well and you wake up and your head feels so heavy, it’s just kind of like that all the time” [P16, Male, 30 years].

Access to mental health support and therapy

Those wanting to access mental health support faced significant barriers, with almost everyone facing difficulties securing services through the NHS due to unresponsiveness, long waiting lists, and appointment challenges. Some participants felt overwhelmed and did not even attempt to seek help, anticipating these issues: “I didn’t really try to be honest…because the waiting lists for the NHS counselling is just ridiculous anyway and I think, you know, I would prefer that in person contact” [P16, Male, 30 years]. Many reported that the available mental health resources often did not suit their needs, and some highlighted a gap in semi-urgent mental health care provision. A few participants reported finding support through charities, but felt it was not sufficient. One participant who could afford private services reported a smoother process in accessing care.

Those accessing therapy, primarily outside the NHS, had positive experiences, with therapy aiding recovery from depression, anxiety, and fostering a greater sense of self-awareness. Individuals noted the convenience and privacy of phone and online sessions as beneficial during the pandemic, as these formats allowed them to express themselves freely within the comfort of their own homes: “I think it helped me to not know what my therapist looked like…I felt like I was able to be in my home and I was speaking to somebody in my ears, but I wasn't having to—so, I could, like, cry and whatever else I needed to do” [P04, Female, 27 years].

Coping strategies and adaptive pursuits

Participants adopted various coping strategies, for instance, many found comfort in nature, especially through walking and gardening: “It's something that I was seeing it as a bit pointless before, but now I love it, I feel so good and refreshed after a walk” [P03, Male, 30 years]. Exercise further emerged as an important coping mechanism: “I already knew pre-pandemic that the number one thing for me individually, in terms of maintaining a healthy mindset about things, is exercise” [P27, Male, 26 years]. Many reported seeking distraction through, for instance, activities such as drawing, reading, or gaming: “I didn't start drawing because I thought it would help but I was really surprised that it was helping in the end” [P18, Female, 34 years]. Most participants further described that seeking social connection, including those with pets, played a crucial role in maintaining their emotional wellbeing. Even though quite a few recognised their attempts to maintain a positive outlook, a small number of individuals resorted to maladaptive coping strategies, including turning to substances like alcohol and nicotine.

Reflective growth and resilience

Many participants described personal growth and increased resilience. Even though some reported facing initial difficulties, many felt that the pandemic allowed them to reflect and grow stronger: “I feel like I’ve generally been growing and finding out what I want to do a bit more, which is good” [P06, Male, 29 years]. Both personal growth and resilience has been descripted by those with and without self-reported anxiety or depression as measured by the GAD-7 and PHQ-9. For many, the pandemic heightened their adaptability, especially when situations did not unfold as planned. Quite a few participants further described paying more attention to their mental health and understanding their reactions to stress: “If I was struggling [pre-pandemic] I just thought it was a part of my day or a part of my week, my month. Whereas now if I’m struggling, I can be a bit more active in improving it” [P09, Female, 31 years].

Domain 4: work & educationWork challenges and ramifications

The pandemic significantly disrupted career trajectories, particularly for young professionals, with many graduates reporting facing a tough job market and missing out on opportunities: “I was applying for retail jobs, I was applying for jobs in my field, I was applying for literally anything that was available, and it was just a completely shoddy market…it took a bit of a hit as well in terms of my mental health because it was just constant onslaught of rejections” [P23, Male, 24 years]. Conversely, some reported pandemic-related changes in their line of work as positive. The lockdown allowed many to introspect and reconsider their career choices, leading some to shift professions, prioritise their mental wellbeing, or acknowledge personal growth despite challenges: “The pandemic, particularly my work, gave me an opportunity to act up as deputy service lead and grow enough to get this position and I don't know if I'd have done that otherwise” [P21, Female, 28 years].

Nonetheless, for some, the pandemic caused significant socio-economic disruptions. One participant, for instance, described the stress of losing their sense of control when all their work engagements were cancelled overnight. Even though being furloughed (i.e., being placed on temporary leave as part of the UK Coronavirus Job Retention Scheme) was often described as a big relief, those affected expressed heightened concerns about job insecurity. Additionally, some struggled with the mental consequences of transitioning from an intense full-time job to suddenly doing nothing: “I was on furlough for eight months…it was almost a numbing sensation. You’d drive so hard, and you’d work 70-h weeks…it was hard to understand and accept” [P07, Male, 25 years]. Overall, socio-economic hardship was more frequently reported by participants from lower socio-economic backgrounds.

Workplace culture and support

Many participants felt isolated, especially new graduates entering their first jobs: “I was quite lonely in my first job; I was only by myself. I never got to see anybody” [P19, Female, 25 years]. Whilst some reported positive support structures, many experienced a lack of effective leadership, with delayed responses to concerns and perceived inaccessibility of management. A minority did feel fully supported, however, crediting their management and colleagues for their emotional wellbeing during this period.

Working from home

Participants’ experiences working from home during the pandemic varied largely, spanning from strong aversion to enthusiastic approval of a fully remote setup. Many appreciated the enhanced work-life balance, reporting increased productivity and better mental wellbeing: “I found that I worked much better at home than I do in the office because I can shut myself away and really focus and concentrate” [P25, Female, 28 years]. Some were neutral, recognising the benefits but missing the office’s social aspect, and worried about professional development: “I found that my ability to do work wasn't hindered…but my ability to professionally develop…I felt that if they [colleagues] were there I’d be able to develop more quickly and get more engaging work” [P27, Male, 26 years]. In contrast, others struggled with working from home, finding it hard to separate work from personal life, feeling isolated, or experiencing monotony, often affecting their mental wellbeing.

Education and teaching

Participants who were students experienced significant academic setbacks and feelings of loneliness. Many felt deprived of their university experience, missing out on internships, placements, and essential social interactions, leading to frustration, isolation, and motivational challenges. Many reported that working from home made studying monotonous and draining. Those enrolled in professional training programmes questioned the quality and effectiveness of their pandemic-altered education, raising doubts whether their training met pre-pandemic standards: “I feel like I missed out on some stuff as well, it was a very practical course, and we sort of had to muddle through and do some of that stuff online…I’ll say this diminished the quality of therapists qualifying at this time, potentially” [P30, Male, 33 years].