Goodman S, Wadsworth E, Leos-Toro C, Hammond D, Team ICPS. Prevalence and forms of cannabis use in legal vs. illegal recreational cannabis markets. Int J Drug Policy. 2020;76:102658.

Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

Ko JY, Farr SL, Tong VT, Creanga AA, Callaghan WM. Prevalence and patterns of marijuana use among pregnant and nonpregnant women of reproductive age. Am J Obstet Gynecol. 2015;213:201.e1–201.e10.

Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

Young-Wolff KC, Tucker L-Y, Alexeeff S, Armstrong MA, Conway A, Weisner C, et al. Trends in self-reported and biochemically tested marijuana use among pregnant females in California from 2009-2016. JAMA. 2017;318:2490–1.

Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

Vanstone M, Taneja S, Popoola A, Panday J, Greyson D, Lennox R, et al. Reasons for cannabis use during pregnancy and lactation: a qualitative study. CMAJ. 2021;193:E1906–14.

Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

Dickson B, Mansfield C, Guiahi M, Allshouse AA, Borgelt LM, Sheeder J, et al. Recommendations from cannabis dispensaries about first-trimester cannabis use. Obstet Gynecol. 2018;131:1031.

Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

ElSohly MA, Chandra S, Radwan M, Majumdar CG, Church JC. A comprehensive review of cannabis potency in the United States in the last decade. Biol Psychiatry: Cogn Neurosci Neuroimaging. 2021;6:603–6.

PubMed  Google Scholar 

Baglot SL, Hume C, Petrie GN, Aukema RJ, Lightfoot SH, Grace LM, et al. Pharmacokinetics and central accumulation of delta-9-tetrahydrocannabinol (THC) and its bioactive metabolites are influenced by route of administration and sex in rats. Sci Rep. 2021;11:23990.

Article  CAS  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

Grotenhermen F. Pharmacokinetics and pharmacodynamics of cannabinoids. Clin Pharmacokinetics. 2003;42:327–60.

Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

Benevenuto SG, Domenico MD, Martins MAG, Costa NS, de Souza ARL, Costa JL, et al. Recreational use of marijuana during pregnancy and negative gestational and fetal outcomes: an experimental study in mice. Toxicology. 2017;376:94–101.

Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

Gillies R, Lee K, Vanin S, Laviolette SR, Holloway AC, Arany E, et al. Maternal exposure to Δ9-tetrahydrocannabinol impairs female offspring glucose homeostasis and endocrine pancreatic development in the rat. Reprod Toxicol. 2020;94:84–91.

Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

Hayatbakhsh MR, Flenady VJ, Gibbons KS, Kingsbury AM, Hurrion E, Mamun AA, et al. Birth outcomes associated with cannabis use before and during pregnancy. Pediatr Res. 2012;71:215–9.

Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

McLemore GL, Richardson KA. Data from three prospective longitudinal human cohorts of prenatal marijuana exposure and offspring outcomes from the fetal period through young adulthood. Data Brief. 2016;9:753–7.

Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

Moore BF, Sauder KA, Shapiro AL, Crume T, Kinney GL, Dabelea D. Fetal exposure to cannabis and childhood metabolic outcomes: the healthy start study. J Clin Endocrinol Metab. 2022;107:e2862–9.

Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

Natale BV, Gustin KN, Lee K, Holloway AC, Laviolette SR, Natale DR, et al. Δ9-tetrahydrocannabinol exposure during rat pregnancy leads to symmetrical fetal growth restriction and labyrinth-specific vascular defects in the placenta. Sci Rep. 2020;10:544.

Article  CAS  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

Paul SE, Hatoum AS, Fine JD, Johnson EC, Hansen I, Karcher NR, et al. Associations between prenatal cannabis exposure and childhood outcomes: results from the ABCD study. JAMA Psychiatry. 2021;78:64–76.

Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

Rodriguez CE, Sheeder J, Allshouse AA, Scott S, Wymore E, Hopfer C, et al. Marijuana use in young mothers and adverse pregnancy outcomes: a retrospective cohort study. BJOG: Int J Obstet Gynaecol. 2019;126:1491–7.

Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

Weimar HV, Wright HR, Warrick CR, Brown AM, Lugo JM, Freels TG, et al. Long-term effects of maternal cannabis vapor exposure on emotional reactivity, social behavior, and behavioral flexibility in offspring. Neuropharmacology. 2020;179:108288.

Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

Campolongo P, Trezza V, Cassano T, Gaetani S, Morgese MG, Ubaldi M, et al. PRECLINICAL STUDY: perinatal exposure to delta‐9‐tetrahydrocannabinol causes enduring cognitive deficits associated with alteration of cortical gene expression and neurotransmission in rats. Addiction Biol. 2007;12:485–95.

Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

Corsi DJ, Donelle J, Sucha E, Hawken S, Hsu H, El-Chaâr D, et al. Maternal cannabis use in pregnancy and child neurodevelopmental outcomes. Nat Med. 2020;26:1536–40.

Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

Porath-Waller AJ. (May 2022 Update). Clearing the smoke on cannabis: maternal cannabis use during pregnancy: Canadian Centre on Substance Abuse. 2009. https://www.ccsa.ca/clearing-smoke-cannabis-cannabis-use-during-pregnancy-and-breastfeeding

Trezza V, Campolongo P, Cassano T, Macheda T, Dipasquale P, Carratù MR, et al. Effects of perinatal exposure to delta-9-tetrahydrocannabinol on the emotional reactivity of the offspring: a longitudinal behavioral study in Wistar rats. Psychopharmacology. 2008;198:529–37.

Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

Day NL, Leech SL, Goldschmidt L. The effects of prenatal marijuana exposure on delinquent behaviors are mediated by measures of neurocognitive functioning. Neurotoxicol Teratol. 2011;33:129–36.

Article  CAS  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

Sonon K, Richardson GA, Cornelius J, Kim KH, Day NL. Developmental pathways from prenatal marijuana exposure to Cannabis Use Disorder in young adulthood. Neurotoxicol Teratol. 2016;58:46–52.

Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

Spano MS, Ellgren M, Wang X, Hurd YL. Prenatal cannabis exposure increases heroin seeking with allostatic changes in limbic enkephalin systems in adulthood. Biol Psychiatry. 2007;61:554–63.

Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

Roncero C, Valriberas-Herrero I, Mezzatesta-Gava M, Villegas JL, Aguilar L, Grau-López L.Cannabis use during pregnancy and its relationship with fetal developmental outcomes and psychiatric disorders. A systematic review.Reprod Health. 2020;17:1–9.

Article  Google Scholar 

Baglot SL, VanRyzin JW, Marquardt AE, Aukema RJ, Petrie GN, Hume C, et al. Maternal‐fetal transmission of delta‐9‐tetrahydrocannabinol (THC) and its metabolites following inhalation and injection exposure during pregnancy in rats. J Neurosci Res. 2022;100:713–30.

Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

Hložek T, Uttl L, Kadeřábek L, Balíková M, Lhotková E, Horsley RR, et al. Pharmacokinetic and behavioural profile of THC, CBD, and THC+ CBD combination after pulmonary, oral, and subcutaneous administration in rats and confirmation of conversion in vivo of CBD to THC. Eur Neuropsychopharmacol. 2017;27:1223–37.

Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

Huestis MA. Human cannabinoid pharmacokinetics. Chem Biodivers. 2007;4:1770.

Article  CAS  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

Nguyen JD, Aarde SM, Vandewater SA, Grant Y, Stouffer DG, Parsons LH, et al. Inhaled delivery of Δ9-tetrahydrocannabinol (THC) to rats by e-cigarette vapor technology. Neuropharmacology. 2016;109:112–20.

Article  CAS  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

Torrens A, Vozella V, Huff H, McNeil B, Ahmed F, Ghidini A, et al. Comparative pharmacokinetics of Δ9-tetrahydrocannabinol in adolescent and adult male mice. J Pharmacol Exp Therapeutics. 2020;374:151–60.

Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

National Academies of Sciences, Engineering, and Medicine. The Health Effects of Cannabis and Cannabinoids: The Current State of Evidence and Recommendations for Research. Washington (DC): National Academies Press (US); 2017. https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK423845/, https://doi.org/10.17226/24625

Heindel JJ, Vandenberg LN. Developmental origins of health and disease: a paradigm for understanding disease etiology and prevention. Curr Opin Pediatr. 2015;27:248.

Article  CAS  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

Cajachagua‐Torres KN, El Marroun H, Reiss IK, Santos S, Jaddoe VW. Foetal tobacco and cannabis exposure, body fat and cardio‐metabolic health in childhood. Pediatr Obes. 2022;17:e12863.

Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

Lee K, Hardy DB. Metabolic consequences of gestational cannabinoid exposure. Int J Mol Sci. 2021;22:9528.

Article  CAS  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

Oke SL, Lee K, Papp R, Laviolette SR, Hardy DB. In utero exposure to δ9-tetrahydrocannabinol leads to postnatal catch-up growth and dysmetabolism in the adult rat liver. Int J Mol Sci. 2021;22:7502.

Article  CAS  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

Ellis RJ, Bara A, Vargas CA, Frick AL, Loh E, Landry J, et al. Prenatal Δ9-tetrahydrocannabinol exposure in males leads to motivational disturbances related to striatal epigenetic dysregulation. Biol Psychiatry. 2022;92:127–38.

Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

Konkle A, Sreter K, Baker S, Bielajew C. Chronic paroxetine infusion influences macronutrient selection in male Sprague–Dawley rats. Pharmacol Biochem Behav. 2003;74:883–90.

Article  CAS  PubMed