Aljomaa, S. S., Mohammad, M. F., Albursan, I. S., Bakhiet, S. F., & Abduljabbar, A. S. (2016). Smartphone addiction among university students in the light of some variables. Computers in Human Behavior, 61, 155–164. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.chb.2016.03.041

Article  Google Scholar 

Belk, R. (1988). Possessions and the extended self. Journal of Consumer Research, 15(2), 139. https://doi.org/10.1086/209154

Article  Google Scholar 

Busch, P. A., & McCarthy, S. (2021). Antecedents and consequences of problematic smartphone use: A systematic literature review of an emerging research area. Computers in Human Behavior, 114, 106414.

Article  Google Scholar 

Byrne, B. M. (2013). Structural equation modeling with Mplus: Basic concepts, applications, and programming. Routledge.

Book  Google Scholar 

Chen, F. F. (2007). Sensitivity of goodness of fit indexes to lack of measurement invariance. Structural Equation Modeling: A Multidisciplinary Journal, 14(3), 464–504.

Article  Google Scholar 

Chen, B., Liu, F., Ding, S., Ying, X., Wang, L., & Wen, Y. (2017). Gender differences in factors associated with smartphone addiction: A cross-sectional study among medical college students. BMC Psychiatry, 17, 1–9.

Clark, A. (2008). Supersizing the mind: Embodiment, action, and cognitive extension. Oxford University Press.

Book  Google Scholar 

Clayton, R. B., Leshner, G., & Almond, A. (2015). The extended iSelf: The impact of iPhone separation on cognition, emotion, and physiology. Journal of Computer-Mediated Communication, 20(2), 119–135.

Cohen, J. (1988). Statistical Power Analysis for the Behavioral Sciences (2nd ed.). Lawrence Erlbaum Associates.

Google Scholar 

Deloitt. (2023). Global Digital Consumer Trends Survey. Retrieved January 10, 2024, from https://www2.deloitte.com/content/dam/Deloitte/cn/Documents/technology-media-telecommunications/deloitte-cn-tmt-global-digital-consumer-survey-zh-231107.pdf

De-Sola Gutiérrez, J., Rodríguez de Fonseca, F., & Rubio, G. (2016). Cell-phone addiction: A review. Frontiers in Psychiatry, 7, 175.

Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

DeVellis, R. F. (2016). Scale development: Theory and applications (4th ed.). Sage Publications.

Google Scholar 

Dong, Y., & Peng, C. Y. J. (2013). Principled missing data methods for researchers. Springerplus, 2(1), 222.

Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

Elhai, J. D., Levine, J. C., Dvorak, R. D., & Hall, B. J. (2016). Fear of missing out, need for touch, anxiety and depression are related to problematic smartphone use. Computers in Human Behavior, 63, 509–516.

Article  Google Scholar 

Elhai, J. D., Dvorak, R. D., Levine, J. C., & Hall, B. J. (2017). Problematic smartphone use: A conceptual overview and systematic review of relations with anxiety and depression psychopathology. Journal of Affective Disorders, 207, 251–259. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jad.2016.08.030

Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

Hair, J., Black, W. C., Babin, B. J., & Anderson, R. E. (2010). Multivariate data analysis (7th ed.). Pearson Educational International.

Google Scholar 

Hoffner, C. A., Lee, S., & Park, S. J. (2016). “I miss my mobile phone!”: Self-expansion via mobile phone and responses to phone loss. New Media & Society, 18(11), 2452–2468. https://doi.org/10.1177/1461444815592665

Article  Google Scholar 

Hu, L., & Bentler, P. M. (1998). Fit indices in covariance structure modeling: Sensitivity to underparameterized model misspecification. Psychological Methods, 3, 424–453.

Article  Google Scholar 

Hu, L., & Bentler, P. M. (1999). Cut-off criteria for fit indexes in covariance structure analysis: Conventional criteria versus new alternatives. Structural Equation Modeling: A Multidisciplinary Journal, 6(1), 1–55.

Article  Google Scholar 

IBM Corp. (2023). IBM SPSS statistics for windows (Version 29.0) [Computer software]. IBM Corp.

Kwon, M., Kim, D. J., Cho, H., & Yang, S. (2013). The smartphone addiction scale: Development and validation of a short version for adolescents. PLoS ONE, 8(12), e83558.

Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

Lee, S. T. H. (2018, September 28). Testing for measurement invariance: Does your measure mean the same thing for different participants? Association for Psychological Science - APS. https://www.psychologicalscience.org/observer/testing-for-measurement-invariance

Leon-Mejia, A. C., Gutierrez-Ortega, M., Serrano-Pintado, I., & Gonzalez-Cabrera, J. (2021). A systematic review on nomophobia prevalence: Surfacing results and standard guidelines for future research. PLoS ONE, 16(5), e0250509. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.02505

Article  CAS  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

Li, L., Griffiths, M. D., Mei, S., & Niu, Z. (2020). Fear of missing out and smartphone addiction mediates the relationship between positive and negative affect and sleep quality among Chinese university students. Frontiers in Psychiatry, 11, 877.

Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

Little, R. J., & Rubin, D. B. (1987). Statistical analysis with missing data. John Wiley.

Luk, T. T., Wang, M. P., Shen, C., Wan, A., Chau, P. H., Oliffe, J., Viswanath, K., Chan, S. S., & Lam, T. H. (2018). Short version of the Smartphone Addiction Scale in Chinese adults: Psychometric properties, sociodemographic, and health behavioral correlates. Journal of Behavioral Addictions, 7(4), 1157–1165. https://doi.org/10.1556/2006.7.2018.105

Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

Marsh, H. W., Balla, J. R., & McDonald, R. P. (1988). Goodness-of-fit indexes in confirmatory factor analysis: The effect of sample size. Psychological Bulletin, 103(3), 391.

Article  Google Scholar 

McClelland, D. (1951). Personality. Holt, Rinehart, & Winston.

Book  Google Scholar 

Muthén, L. K., & Muthén, B. O. (1998–2015). Mplus user’s guide (7th Ed.). Muthén & Muthén.

Nunnally, J. C., & Bernstein, I. H. (1994). The Assessment of Reliability. Psychometric Theory, 3, 248–292.

Google Scholar 

Panova, T., & Carbonell, X. (2018). Is smartphone addiction really an addiction? Journal of Behavioral Addictions, 7(2), 252–259.

Park, C. S., & Kaye, B. K. (2019). Smartphone and self-extension: Functionally, anthropomorphically, and ontologically extending self via the smartphone. Mobile Media and Communication, 7(2), 215–231. https://doi.org/10.1177/2050157918808327

Article  Google Scholar 

Pilkonis, P. A., Choi, S. W., Reise, S. P., Stover, A. M., Riley, W. T., Cella, D., PROMIS Cooperative Group. (2011). Item banks for measuring emotional distress from the Patient-Reported Outcomes Measurement Information System (PROMIS®): depression, anxiety, and anger. Assessment, 18(3), 263–283.

Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

Prensky, M. (2001). Digital natives, digital immigrants part 1. On the Horizon, 9, 1–6.

Google Scholar 

Putnick, D. L., & Bornstein, M. H. (2016). Measurement Invariance Conventions and Reporting: The State of the Art and Future Directions for Psychological Research. Developmental Review : Dev Rev, 41, 71–90. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.dr.2016.06.004

Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

Ross, M. Q., & Bayer, J. B. (2021). Explicating self-phones: Dimensions and correlates of smartphone self-extension. Mobile Media & Communication, 9(3), 488–512.

Article  Google Scholar 

Samaha, M., & Hawi, N. S. (2016). Relationships among smartphone addiction, stress, academic performance, and satisfaction with life. Computers in Human Behavior, 57, 321–325.

Statista. (2022a). Smartphone penetration rate in China from 2018 to 2022 with forecasts until 2027 [Graph]. In Statista. Retrieved January 10, 2024, from https://www.statista.com/statistics/321482/smartphone-user-penetration-in-china/

Statista. (2022b). Number of smartphone users in China 2018–2027. Retrieved January 12, 2024, from https://www.statista.com/statistics/467160/forecast-of-smartphone-users-in-china/

Statista. (2023). Smartphone mobile network subscriptions worldwide 2016–2028. Retrieved January 12, 2024, from https://www.statista.com/statistics/330695/number-of-smartphone-users-worldwide/

Stevens, J. P. (2012). Applied multivariate statistics for the social sciences. Routledge.

Book  Google Scholar 

Tavakol, M., & Dennick, R. (2011). Making sense of Cronbach’s alpha. International Journal of Medical Education, 2, 53–55.

Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

Thomée, S., Härenstam, A., & Hagberg, M. (2011). Mobile phone use and stress, sleep disturbances, and symptoms of depression among young adults-a prospective cohort study. BMC Public Health, 11(1), 1–11.

Article  Google Scholar 

Wacks, Y., & Weinstein, A. M. (2021). Excessive smartphone use is associated with health problems in adolescents and young adults. Frontiers in Psychiatry, 12, 669042. https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyt.2021.669042

Wu, J., Qiao, L., & Liu, Q. (2023). The expanded me: Impact of smartphone use on adolescents’ self-expansion via smartphone. International Journal of Human-Computer Interaction, 39(17), 3324–3333.

Article  Google Scholar 

Yildirim, C., & Correia, A. P. (2015). Exploring the dimensions of nomophobia: Development and validation of a self-reported questionnaire. Computers in Human Behavior, 49, 130–137.

Article  Google Scholar