From the *Department of Anesthesiology, University of Colorado School of Medicine, Anschutz Medical Campus, Aurora, Colorado

†Department of Anesthesiology, University of Nebraska Medical Center, Omaha, Nebraska

‡Department of Medicine, Division of Pulmonary, Critical Care, and Sleep Medicine, University of Nebraska Medical Center, Omaha, Nebraska

§Outcomes Research Consortium, Cleveland, Ohio.

Accepted for publication December 22, 2023

Funding: This work was supported by the National Institutes of Health (NIH; award K23DA040923 to K.B.) and the Agency for Healthcare Research and Quality (AHRQ; award R01HS027795 to K.B.). The content of this report is solely the responsibility of the authors and does not necessarily represent the official views of the NIH or AHRQ. The NIH and AHRQ had no involvement in study design, collection, analysis, interpretation of data, writing of the report, or the decision to submit the article for publication.

The authors declare no conflicts of interest.

Address correspondence to Karsten Bartels, MD, PhD, MBA, Department of Anesthesiology, University of Nebraska Medical Center, 984455 Nebraska Medical Center, Omaha, NE 68198. Address e-mail to [email protected].