Domingo de Ramos, in central Mexico, is a syncretism between pre-Hispanic beliefs and Catholic religion, reflected both in the species used and in the associated symbolism. On the one hand, the plants used to make ramos are a mixture of native Mexican species and others introduced from Europe. On the other hand, the use of ramos has protective and medicinal elements and is not only used for what is referred to as Catholic ritual. This dialectical interaction between the two beliefs has been documented in certain religious festivities [2, 24, 51] and constitutes an aspect of identity in Mexico.

Significance of the ramos: between pre-Hispanic protection and Catholic ritual

While the interviewees recognized the Catholic significance of the ramos, in the daily life of the sellers they have other uses. Their main use is as “protection,” a use in which pre-Hispanic beliefs are still preserved. For this reason, we kept “protection” and “blessing” as two distinct categories in the study. This belief in the protection conferred by the ramos preserves pre-Hispanic concepts and rituals, while their use in blessing corresponds to Western beliefs. The emic interpretation goes beyond the Catholic conception, thus rejecting our first working hypothesis.

Some research about the use of plants for religious festivities and their symbolic importance are also reported in Poland for Assumption Day (August 15). People make bouquets mainly of medicinal herbs on this festivity, which also have a protective and apotropaic use against evil influences. The bouquets are hung on walls, inside one’s house or on farming premises and are still used for smudging in protective magic against storms and thunder or may be laid under a deceased person’s head. In this research, rozchodnik or goldmoss stonecrop (Sedum acre L.) concerns protection from thunder; these beliefs concerning the powers of this plant are common throughout Europe and can be traced to Roman times [52].

We could consider many species of plants as living examples of history that continues until our days because they retain symbolic, ritual and medicinal uses that are very difficult to separate from each other. They have probably overlapped on many occasions since antiquity [53].

Uses of the ramo as a protector of people or crops have been described as paganism. Thus, maintenance of these beliefs has been seen as an illegitimate form of faith: “lo verdaderamente importante es participar en la procesión y no simplemente procurarse una palma o ramo de olivo; que estos no se conserven como si fueran amuletos, con un fin curativo o para mantener alejados a los malos espíritus y evitar así, en las casas y los campos, los daños que causan, lo cual podría ser una forma de superstición” (“what is truly important is to participate in the procession and not simply procure a palm or olive branch; these should not be kept as if they were amulets, for healing purposes or to ward away evil spirits and thus prevent the damage they cause in the homes and fields, which could be a form of superstition”) [54, 55]. Similarly, in Spain, for the same celebration, these protective uses of ramos have been interpreted as a link between popular religiosity, magic, and nature and have been described as “profane remedies” [56].

The term “reliquia” (“relic”) merits a special mention. Some interviewees recognize the “reliquia” as part of the ramo, referring to the rosemary, chamomile, laurel, and palm. These are used as spices or medicinal herbs. At the same time, in the study area, Guerrero [57] reports the use of “reliquia” in other contexts; e.g., to avoid miscarriage (using rosemary, fennel and marigold); for “limpias” (“healing rituals”); and to avoid children being hurt by witches (apotropaic use). The broad use of the term “reliquia” is relevant since, for the Catholic religion, it refers to parts of saints or objects that have been in contact with them, and attributes a sacred and miraculous significance [58].

Brahea dulcis palm, considered a “reliquia,” has a very important protective use. On the one hand, in funerary contexts, the deceased are protected with huaraches (sandals), crowns and crosses made of palm so that they can safely reach the afterlife. This is practiced among the Hñähñu, Nahuas and Ixcatecos in Hidalgo, Guerrero and Oaxaca [36, 59,60,61]. In addition, it is used to protect people (especially children) and homes (this study and [36]) and is widely used to calm storms. This probably reflects pre-Hispanic conceptions, as has been explored in anthropology through studies on lightning ritualists [62, 63]. These emic approximations, which result from the syncretic process, merit further study.

Vegetal species

The species identified as essential to make a “good ramo” are of European origin: chamomile (Chamaemelum nobile), rosemary (Rosmarinus officinalis), rue (Ruta graveolens) and olive (Olea europaea). The latter three have been documented in Spain in relation to Domingo de Ramos, where rosemary is venerated for its relationship with the story of the Virgin, rue is considered protective due to its powerful smell and the olive tree symbolizes peace [56]. These introduced species in Mexico are used together with native plants such as the Brahea dulcis palm and the Mexican laurel (Litsea glaucescens) (its European equivalent Laurus nobilis) is a symbol of victory and eternal life accordance to [56], which reflects the syncretism.

In Europe, many plants are used during Palm Sunday, which are blessed and have an apotropaic use. In Poland, Kujawska et al. [64] carried out historical ethnobotanical research where nearly 250 studies of plants and their use in folk culture are documented, describing medicinal, magic, apotropaic, ritualistic, among other uses. Below we mention some of these plant species blessed during Palm Sunday in Poland; Brzoza or birch (Betula verrucosa Ehrh.), is believed to have healing and magical powers and is considered a lucky tree. Cis or yew (Taxus baccata L.), despite being a toxic plant, is used in ramos; likewise, sick cattle are incensed with it and it also protects persons from witches, misfortunes and all evil. Leszczyna or hazelnut (Corylus avellana L.) is considered magical and protective usages against lightning; crosses made with this plant are hung over doors and windows to prevent the access of an evil spirit. Jałowiec or juniper (Juniperus communis L.) is used in houses and livestock against witchcraft. Jemioła or mistletoe (Viscum album L.) once blessed, is believed to have power and strength against curses. Jodła or silver fir (Abies alba Mill.), although considered unlucky tree and not planted next to houses, is added to the blessed palm on Palm Sunday. Kłokoczka or bladdernut (Staphylea pinnata L.) is used to make ramos; local people also attributed great magical power to it. Kocanki or sandy everlasting (Helichrysum arenarium L.) is tied in ramos which protect against lightning when hung on the walls. Also, in Ukraine, other studies reported that Tagetes patula L. has a ritual use that is blessed on Assumption Day and Palm Sunday [65], and branches of willow (Salix spp.) on Palm Sunday; it protects against evil and aids in beating out the devil [66].

Substitution phenomena

Ramos were originally made with natural plant elements that can be returned to the soil and can easily be degraded. Since the price of natural flowers increases the purchase costs, cheaper artificial flowers are being used to replace them. This substitution leads to changes in significance, since each element of the ramo has a very deep symbolism, although some interviewees included artificial flowers as elements that cannot be missing in a “good ramo.” The use of plastic elements occurs in different religious festivals, where some authors state that this practice detracts from the purity and cultural value of the celebrations [67, 68].

Historical changes

An interesting aspect that needs to be addressed in future research is the changes in the composition and symbolism of the ramos over time. In some European countries, it has been observed that one of the most important reasons for those changes on ramos for Assumption Day is the transformations of the vegetation and lifestyle in rural areas [69]. This kind of research could give a glimpse into transformations in the landscape and their influence on traditions. While the present work contributes to describing in detail the contemporary uses and meanings, the historical changes in the uses of the ramo in central Mexico must be considered.

Are the ramos associated with domingo de Ramos “eco-friendly”?

Palm leaves gathered from plantations are considered “eco-friendly” [21]. In contrast, given the high demand for palm leaves for Domingo de Ramos, it is assumed that their extraction from natural ecosystems inevitably leads to their depletion, even with no knowledge of the ecological and management conditions with which they are often associated [36, 70, 71]. This has generated a prohibition of the use of native palms and the introduction of environmental regulations to limit their use [72, 73]. There is also a tendency for the media in several countries to campaign against the trade in palms [74,75,76], although studies that demonstrate its possible damaging ecological impacts are rare. However, little or nothing is discussed in the mass media regarding the other side of the coin: the cultural value of ramos and the economic income that this festivity provides for thousands of people, which is part of the biocultural heritage of these localities. The case of the Mesoamerican palm B. dulcis has played a particularly key role in religious celebrations, as exemplified by the ramos made with this species in Nahua communities of Guerrero [59, 77], Hñähñu and mestizo communities of Hidalgo [34,35,36] and Popolocas from Zapotitlán Salinas, Puebla [61].

The elaboration of ramos requires a new leaf with a non-extended (unopened) blade; this leaf is gathered without damaging the trunk or apical meristem of the plant [34]. One or two leaves are gathered from each individual, so the ecological effects of the practice are low, especially considering that B. dulcis has the highest leaf production rate of the palms studied in America [36] and the gathering is infrequent. Brahea dulcis has a great potential for sustainable use because of the gathering strategy employed, and the high productivity and wide distribution of the species [78]. Its role as a key NTFP is prominent due to the extensive traditional knowledge regarding its use and management that is held by the Mesoamerican people [61, 77].

Similarly, the sale of ramos represents an important monetary income for thousands of people. For all of the stated reasons, the use of natural populations of B. dulcis should be considered even more “eco-friendly” than that of palm leaves obtained from plantations.

The University of Minnesota has a program called “Eco-palms,” directed toward the sustainable gathering of Chamaedorea leaves in Mexico and Guatemala for exportation to the USA, generating fairer profits. This initiative has achieved a market of 300 million leaves/year [79]. It is important to consider this initiative that could serve as a reference for the use of B. dulcis, which has a high potential for sustainable use, as described above.

This initiative involves the direct use of natural ecosystems, which is relevant to Latin America, where there is a lack of incentives that could be used to demonstrate the true value of nature and invite reflection, rethinking the manner in which conservation has been conceived to date. While observing landscapes that have been plundered and eroded by large-scale mining, agricultural and forestry industries, one cannot continue to conceive that the best form of sustainable use is not to use nature [80], or that environmental protection must sacrifice the cultural aspect, impacting traditional religious symbols [74]. In the words of an interviewee when asked for his opinion on the permits for using the palm: “que si es para privarnos de vender [los ramos] que nos mantengan. No se perjudica a las plantas, pero a veces ellos [el gobierno] hacen cosas y prohíben sin saber” or “if it is to deprive us of selling [the ramos] that support us. The plants are not harmed, but sometimes they [the government] do things and prohibit things without knowing” (Male, 76 years old).

However, Mexican laurel is a threatened species according to NOM-059-SEMARNAT-2010 [45], and thus the ecological effects of gathering must be taken into account. Such use of Sabal and B. dulcis requires the development of a management plan. According to the interviewees, the reason for regulating use is unknown, since it is not a terminal use, or many people are actually unaware of the need for permits for its use.

Productive chain and sellers

According to the productive chain and gathering plots for the celebration of Domingo de Ramos, our second hypothesis is rejected. Despite the fact that there are natural populations of B. dulcis and S. mexicana in our study area, some of the interviewees chose to buy the palm in big markets, mainly in Mexico City, either because they are unaware that there is palm in Hidalgo or because they mistakenly believe that it can be obtained at a better price.

The obtaining chain of the palm is long and includes intermediaries. The most frequent method includes the ramos sellers buying the leaves and weaving them. The second most frequent strategy is gatherers weaving and selling the ramos. In contrast, in Bolivia, Miguez et al. [8] found that the gatherers rarely also sell the ramos.

The sale of ramo palms is an occasional and often an annual activity, so the commercial processes can be flexible. For B. dulcis, the leaf demand volumes are three orders of magnitude higher for the hat industry in Guerrero than for ramos in Hidalgo (Illsley et al. [81] reported 40,000 collectors and this study reports 44). International markets are also reached from Guerrero.

Ethnobotanical research at regional scale

In general, ethnobiological work is carried out at the local scale, thus obtaining greater detail with which to address specific questions. A challenge in this area of knowledge is to use this local information to analyze issues that go beyond the communities themselves and that can be related to large-scale questions. For example, improving our understanding of why certain plants have been selected for ritual or religious purposes, not being chosen at random, but through complex processes that integrate the empirical with the symbolic and historical [32].

This study, carried out at a regional scale, covering eight geo-culturally distinct regions, documents the symbolic importance of ramos palm, a phenomenon that is not unique to any single community and the syncretism of which could be addressed in greater depth using different approaches, such as those anthropology and history.

Likewise, this regional scale allowed us to have an overview of the diversity of plants used and the symbolic similarities in the uses of the ramos and to identify a large commercial network that had not been previously identified in the study area and that reflected the complex relationships in NTFP that remain little addressed.

Palm Sunday in other regions

Palm Sunday is a Catholic celebration with deep roots in Europe. For example, studies on the use of the palm and its relationship with religion in Catalonia mention this unique and characteristic product, especially in the palm grove of Elche, better known as white palm, which is mainly used in the Palm Sunday liturgy [82]. This white palm is divided into two types according to the standard selection based on height and whiteness, leaving the most perfect for “smooth.” These are known as the smooth palms and are intended for men and young people. Another type is the curly palm; the work of curling falls especially on women. Some craftswomen make the ornaments, while others begin to shape the basic structures. One of them, the most skilled, will decide on the design of the most important ones. Afterward, the bouquet is assembled by sewing the ornaments to the structure, which is subject to the curler’s imagination and the palm’s characteristics [82].

The importance of these ramos is that every year white palms are sent to the different churches of the province, to the Spanish Royal Family and to the President of the Government, among others. The convent processions throughout Spain are filled with palms, and many of them are exported to different countries to celebrate liturgical acts: England, Portugal, Italy, Belgium, France, Germany and some Scandinavian countries [82].

Study limitations

In this study, the rapport period was minimal. This meant that, despite having the purposes of the study explained to them, in some cases the sellers did not agree to answer the questions for different reasons; distrust, believing that we may have belonged to some government institution; available time, the activities they were carrying out (selling, weaving the ramos), the lack of space to talk or even self-doubt, due to which they believed that the questions would be difficult to answer. Given this situation, there is the possibility that the most compromising questions, such as those related to economic income, could have been underestimated. Furthermore, one of the limitations was the number of individuals interviewed for the municipalities studied (essentially 1–9 interviewees per municipality). Another limitation is that the regional scale might not produce sufficient qualitative information on the emic perspective of ramos. However, the Free List method seems to be a suitable tool for a first approximation since, with the Smith Index, the most frequently cited uses, and those mentioned first, tend to indicate what is uppermost in people's minds and most significant in their lives [83]. In this way, an approach is used concerning what the plant elements used on Domingo de Ramos represent for the people who have dedicated themselves for years to the gathering, weaving and sale of ramos and thus allow this tradition to continue to the present day. However, additional efforts and future studies are needed to document the knowledge of the ramos in more states or countries. For example: comparative studies with historical data that allow an approximation on the modification of traditional knowledge on the use of ramos’ plants; investigations that deeply address the symbolism of plant use, which let us to understand the role plants play not only in religious life but also in shaping identity; commercial aspects for NTFP that rarely addressed in research. These efforts could elucidate a more comprehensive understanding of the biological, social and economic elements, from a comparative perspective.