Roser M, Ritchie H, Ortiz-Ospina E, Rodés-Guirao L. World population growth. Our World Data. Published online May 9, 2013. https://ourworldindata.org/world-population-growth. Accessed 1 Apr 2023.

Population growth (annual %) | Data. https://data.worldbank.org/indicator/SP.POP.GROW.  Accessed 1 Apr 2023.

Budiman A, Ruiz NG. Key facts about Asian Americans, a diverse and growing population. Pew Research Center. https://www.pewresearch.org/fact-tank/2021/04/29/key-facts-about-asian-americans/. Accessed 1 Apr 2023

Vaduganathan M, Mensah GA, Turco JV, Fuster V, Roth GA. The global burden of cardiovascular diseases and risk. J Am Coll Cardiol. 2022;80(25):2361–71. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jacc.2022.11.005.

Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

Lindstrom M, DeCleene N, Dorsey H, et al. Global burden of cardiovascular diseases and risks collaboration, 1990–2021. J Am Coll Cardiol. 2022;80(25):2372–425. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jacc.2022.11.001.

Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

Roth GA, Mensah GA, Johnson CO, et al. Global burden of cardiovascular diseases and risk factors, 1990–2019: update from the GBD 2019 study. J Am Coll Cardiol. 2020;76(25):2982–3021. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jacc.2020.11.010. ()

Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

Patel AP, Wang M, Kartoun U, Ng K, Khera AV. Quantifying and understanding the higher risk of atherosclerotic cardiovascular disease among South Asian individuals. Circulation. 2021;144(6):410–22. https://doi.org/10.1161/CIRCULATIONAHA.120.052430. One the largest contemporary cohort studies comparing risk factors and ASCVD outcomes among South Asians and Europeans in the UK.

Article  CAS  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

Yusuf S, Hawken S, Ounpuu S, et al. Effect of potentially modifiable risk factors associated with myocardial infarction in 52 countries (the INTERHEART study): case-control study. Lancet Lond Engl. 2004;364(9438):937–52. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0140-6736(04)17018-9. One of the first large-scale epidemiological studies highlighting significantly lower age for first myocardial infarction among South Asians and underlying risk factors.

Article  Google Scholar 

Sacco RL, Roth GA, Reddy KS, et al. The Heart of 25 by 25: Achieving the goal of reducing global and regional premature deaths from cardiovascular diseases and stroke: a modeling study from the American Heart Association and World Heart Federation. Circulation. 2016;133(23):e674-690. https://doi.org/10.1161/CIR.0000000000000395. Study projecting incidence of premature ASCVD globally and among regions.

Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

Kianoush S, Rifai MA, Jain V, et al. Prevalence and predictors of premature coronary heart disease among Asians in the United States: a National Health Interview Survey study. Curr Probl Cardiol. 26 2022:101152. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cpcardiol.2022.101152

Joseph P, Kutty VR, Mohan V, et al. Cardiovascular disease, mortality, and their associations with modifiable risk factors in a multi-national South Asia cohort: a PURE substudy. Eur Heart J. 2022;43(30):2831–40. https://doi.org/10.1093/eurheartj/ehac249. Epidemiological study comparing CV and all cause mortality rates across South Asian regions.

Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

Gupta K, Al Rifai M, Hussain A, et al. South Asian ethnicity: what can we do to make this risk enhancer a risk equivalent? Prog Cardiovasc Dis. 2022;75:21–32. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.pcad.2022.10.001.

Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

Volgman AS, Palaniappan LS, Aggarwal NT, et al. Atherosclerotic cardiovascular disease in South Asians in the United States: epidemiology, risk factors, and treatments: a scientific statement from the American Heart Association. Circulation. 2018;138(1):e1–34. https://doi.org/10.1161/CIR.0000000000000580.

Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

Mehta A, Vasquez N, Ayers CR, et al. Independent association of lipoprotein(a) and coronary artery calcification with atherosclerotic cardiovascular risk. J Am Coll Cardiol. 2022;79(8):757–68. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jacc.2021.11.058.

Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

Ahmed ST, Rehman H, Akeroyd JM, et al. Premature coronary heart disease in South Asians: burden and determinants. Curr Atheroscler Rep. 2018;20(1):6. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11883-018-0706-1.

Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

Kanaya AM, Herrington D, Vittinghoff E, et al. Understanding the high prevalence of diabetes in U.S. South Asians compared with four racial/ethnic groups: the MASALA and MESA studies. Diabetes Care. 2014;37(6):1621–8. https://doi.org/10.2337/dc13-2656. ()

Article  CAS  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

Yajnik CS, Lubree HG, Rege SS, et al. Adiposity and hyperinsulinemia in Indians are present at birth. J Clin Endocrinol Metab. 2002;87(12):5575–80. https://doi.org/10.1210/jc.2002-020434.O. One the earliest studies reporting higher insulin resistance and adiposity among South Asian newborns.

Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

Ikehara S, Tabák AG, Akbaraly TN, et al. Age trajectories of glycaemic traits in non-diabetic South Asian and white individuals: the Whitehall II cohort study. Diabetologia. 2015;58(3):534–42. https://doi.org/10.1007/s00125-014-3448-9.

Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

Jainandunsing S, Özcan B, Rietveld T, et al. Failing beta-cell adaptation in South Asian families with a high risk of type 2 diabetes. Acta Diabetol. 2015;52(1):11–9. https://doi.org/10.1007/s00592-014-0588-9.

Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

Whincup PH, Nightingale CM, Owen CG, et al. Early emergence of ethnic differences in type 2 diabetes precursors in the UK: the Child Heart and Health Study in England (CHASE Study). PLOS Med. 2010;7(4):1000263. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pmed.1000263.

Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

Wolf RM, Nagpal M, Magge SN. Diabetes and cardiometabolic risk in South Asian Youth: a review. Pediatr Diabetes. 2021;22(1):52–66. https://doi.org/10.1111/pedi.13078.

Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

Pu J, Zhao B, Wang EJ, et al. Racial/ethnic differences in gestational diabetes prevalence and contribution of common risk factors. Paediatr Perinat Epidemiol. 2015;29(5):436–43. https://doi.org/10.1111/ppe.12209.

Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

Lawlor DA, West J, Fairley L, et al. Pregnancy glycaemia and cord-blood levels of insulin and leptin in Pakistani and white British mother–offspring pairs: findings from a prospective pregnancy cohort. Diabetologia. 2014;57(12):2492–500. https://doi.org/10.1007/s00125-014-3386-6.

Article  CAS  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

Clapp JF, Kiess W. Cord blood leptin reflects fetal fat mass. J Soc Gynecol Investig. 1998;5(6):300–3. https://doi.org/10.1177/107155769800500604.

Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

Mantzoros CS, Rifas-Shiman SL, Williams CJ, Fargnoli JL, Kelesidis T, Gillman MW. Cord blood leptin and adiponectin as predictors of adiposity in children at 3 years of age: a prospective cohort study. Pediatrics. 2009;123(2):682–9. https://doi.org/10.1542/peds.2008-0343.

Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

Bilen O, Kamal A, Virani SS. Lipoprotein abnormalities in South Asians and its association with cardiovascular disease: Current state and future directions. World J Cardiol. 2016;8(3):247–57. https://doi.org/10.4330/wjc.v8.i3.247. Review article discussing lipid abnormalities among South Asians.

Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

Karthikeyan G, Teo KK, Islam S, et al. Lipid profile, plasma apolipoproteins, and risk of a first myocardial infarction among Asians: an analysis from the INTERHEART Study. J Am Coll Cardiol. 2009;53(3):244–53. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jacc.2008.09.041. Study reporting higher apolipoprotein B concentration for similar level of LDL-C among South Asians.

Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

Singh K, Thanassoulis G, Dufresne L, et al. A comparison of lipids and apoB in Asian Indians and Americans. Glob Heart. 2021;16(1):7. https://doi.org/10.5334/gh.882.

Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

Patel JV, Caslake MJ, Vyas A, et al. Triglycerides and small dense low density lipoprotein in the discrimination of coronary heart disease risk in South Asian populations. Atherosclerosis. 2010;209(2):579–84. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.atherosclerosis.2009.10.010.

Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

Virani SS, Koschinsky ML, Maher L, et al. Global think tank on the clinical considerations and management of lipoprotein(a): the top questions and answers regarding what clinicians need to know. Prog Cardiovasc Dis. 2022;73:32–40. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.pcad.2022.01.002.

Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

Emerging Risk Factors Collaboration, Erqou S, Kaptoge S, et al. Lipoprotein(a) concentration and the risk of coronary heart disease, stroke, and nonvascular mortality. JAMA. 2009;302(4):412-423https://doi.org/10.1001/jama.2009.1063

Paré G, Çaku A, McQueen M, et al. Lipoprotein(a) levels and the risk of myocardial infarction among 7 ethnic groups. Circulation. 2019;139(12):1472–82. https://doi.org/10.1161/CIRCULATIONAHA.118.034311. Study comparing lipoprotein(a) concentration across race/ethnicity.

Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

Arnett DK, Blumenthal RS, Albert MA, et al. 2019 ACC/AHA guideline on the primary prevention of cardiovascular disease: a report of the American College of Cardiology/American Heart Association Task Force on clinical practice guidelines. Circulation. 2019;140(11):e596–646. https://doi.org/10.1161/CIR.0000000000000678. ACC/AHA guidelines discussing the risk enhancer role of South Asians among those with borderline-intermediate 10-year ASCVD risk.

Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

Narayan KMV, Kanaya AM. Why are South Asians prone to type 2 diabetes? A hypothesis based on underexplored pathways. Diabetologia. 2020;63(6):1103–9. https://doi.org/10.1007/s00125-020-05132-5.

Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

Selvaraj S, Martinez EE, Aguilar FG, et al. Association of central adiposity with adverse cardiac mechanics. Circ Cardiovasc Imaging. 2016;9(6):e004396. https://doi.org/10.1161/CIRCIMAGING.115.004396.

Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

InterAct Consortium, Langenberg C, Sharp SJ, et al. Long-term risk of incident type 2 diabetes and measures of overall and regional obesity: the EPIC-InterAct case-cohort study. PLoS Med. 2012;9(6):e1001230. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pmed.1001230

Ellulu MS, Patimah I, Khaza’ai H, Rahmat A, Abed Y. Obesity and inflammation: the linking mechanism and the complications. Arch Med Sci AMS. 2017;13(4):851–63. https://doi.org/10.5114/aoms.2016.58928.

Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

Whelton PK, Carey RM, Aronow WS, et al. 2017 ACC/AHA/AAPA/ABC/ACPM/AGS/APhA/ASH/ASPC/NMA/PCNA guideline for the prevention, detection, evaluation, and management of high blood pressure in adults: a report of the American College of Cardiology/American Heart Association Task Force on clinical practice guidelines. Hypertension. 2018;71(6):e13–115. https://doi.org/10.1161/HYP.0000000000000065.

Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

Gupta K, Jain V, Qamar A, et al. Regional impact of updated guidelines on prevalence and distribution of blood pressure categories for hypertension in India: Results from the National Family Health Survey 4. Indian Heart J. 2021;73(4):481–6. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ihj.2021.06.004. Study reporting updated prevalence of hypertension in India.

Article  PubMed  PubMed Central