Akiyama H, Nishimura T, Kondo H, Ikeda K, Hayashi Y, McGeer PL (1994) Expression of the receptor for macrophage colony stimulating factor by brain microglia and its upregulation in brains of patients with Alzheimer’s disease and amyotrophic lateral sclerosis. Brain Res 639:171–174. https://doi.org/10.1016/0006-8993(94)91779-5

Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

Akiyoshi R, Wake H, Kato D, Horiuchi H, Ono R, Ikegami A, Haruwaka K, Omori T, Tachibana Y, Moorhouse AJ, Nabekura J (2018) Microglia enhance synapse activity to promote local network synchronization. eNeuro. 5:ENEURO.0088–18.2018. https://doi.org/10.1523/ENEURO.0088-18.2018.

Antonucci F, Turola E, Riganti L, Caleo M, Gabrielli M, Perrotta C, Novellino L, Clementi E, Giussani P, Viani P, Matteoli M, Verderio C (2012) Microvesicles released from microglia stimulate synaptic activity via enhanced sphingolipid metabolism. EMBO J 31:1231–1240. https://doi.org/10.1038/emboj.2011.489

Article  CAS  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

Autran B, Carcelain G, Li TS, Blanc C, Mathez D, Tubiana R, Katlama C, Debré P, Leibowitch J (1997) Positive effects of combined antiretroviral therapy on CD4+ T cell homeostasis and function in advanced HIV disease. Science 277:112–116. https://doi.org/10.1126/science.277.5322.112

Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

Becker BW, Thames AD, Woo E, Castellon SA, Hinkin CH (2011) Longitudinal change in cognitive function and medication adherence in HIV-infected adults. AIDS Behav 15:1888–1894. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10461-011-9924-z

Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

Berezovskaya O, Maysinger D, Fedoroff S (1995) The hematopoietic cytokine, colony-stimulating factor 1, is also a growth factor in the CNS: A congenital absence of CSF-1 in mice results in abnormal microglial response and increased neuron vulnerability to injury. Int J Dev Neurosci 13:285–299. https://doi.org/10.1016/0736-5748(95)00013-7

Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

Bergamini A, Perno CF, Dini L, Capozzi M, Pesce CD, Ventura L, Cappannoli L, Falasca L, Milanese G, Caliò R, Rocchi G (1994) Macrophage colony-stimulating factor enhances the susceptibility of macrophages to infection by human immunodeficiency virus and reduces the activity of compounds that inhibit virus binding. Blood 84:3405–3412

Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

Brodmann K (1909) Vergleichende Lokalisationslehre der Grosshirnrinde in Inren Prinzipien Dargestellt auf Grund des Zellenbaues. Barth, Germany, Leipzig

Google Scholar 

Campos LN, Guimarães MDC, Remien RH (2010) Anxiety and depression symptoms as risk factors for non-adherence to antiretroviral therapy in Brazil. AIDS Behav 14:289–299. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10461-008-9435-8

Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

Carr DB, Sesack SR (1996) Hippocampal afferents to the rat prefrontal cortex: Synaptic targets and relation to dopamine terminals. J Comp Neurol 369:1–15. https://doi.org/10.1002/(SICI)1096-9861(19960520)369:1%3c1::AID-CNE1%3e3.0.CO;2-7

Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

Chen X, Nelson CD, Li X, Winters CA, Azzam R, Sousa AA, Leapman RD, Gainer H, Sheng M, Reese TS (2011) PSD-95 is required to sustain the molecular organization of the postsynaptic density. J Neurosci 31:6329–6338. https://doi.org/10.1523/JNEUROSCI.5968-10.2011

Article  CAS  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

Choudhury ME, Miyanishi K, Takeda H, Islam A, Matsuoka N, Kubo M, Matsumoto S, Kunieda T, Nomoto M, Yano H, Tanaka J (2020) Phagocytic elimination of synapses by microglia during sleep. Glia 68:44–59. https://doi.org/10.1002/glia.23698

Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

Cysique LA, Brew BJ (2019) Comorbid depression and apathy in HIV-associated neurocognitive disorders in the era of chronic HIV infection. Handb Clin Neurol 165:71–82. https://doi.org/10.1016/B978-0-444-64012-3.00006-X

Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

Denton AR, Samaranayake SA, Kirchner KN, Roscoe RF, Berger SN, Harrod SB, Mactutus CF, Hashemi P, Booze RM (2019) Selective monoaminergic and histaminergic circuit dysregulation following long-term HIV-1 protein exposure. J Neurovirol 25:540–550. https://doi.org/10.1007/s13365-019-00754-x

Article  CAS  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

Desplats P, Dumaop W, Smith D, Adame A, Everall I, Letendre S, Ellis R, Cherner M, Grant I, Masliah E (2013) Molecular and pathologic insights from latent HIV-1 infection in the human brain. Neurology 80:1415–1423. https://doi.org/10.1212/WNL.0b013e31828c2e9e

Article  CAS  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

Edara VV, Ghorpade A, Borgmann K (2020) Insights into the gene expression profiles of active and restricted red/green-HIV+ human astrocytes: Implications for shock or lock therapies in the brain. J Virol 94:e01563-e1619. https://doi.org/10.1128/JVI.01563-19

Article  CAS  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

Festa LK, Irollo E, Platt BJ, Tian Y, Floresco S, Meucci O (2020) CXCL12-induced rescue of cortical dendritic spines and cognitive flexibility. Elife. 9:e49717. https://doi.org/10.7554/eLife.49717.

Fitting S, Ignatowska-Jankowska BM, Bull C, Skoff RP, Lichtman AH, Wise LE, Fox MA, Su J, Medina AE, Krahe TE, Knapp PE, Guido W, Hauser KF (2013) Synaptic dysfunction in the hippocampus accompanies learning and memory deficits in human immunodeficiency virus type-1 Tat transgenic mice. Biol Psychiatry 73:443–453. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.biopsych.2012.09.026

Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

Garvey LJ, Pavese N, Politis M, Ramlackhansingh A, Brooks DJ, Taylor-Robinson SD, Winston A (2014) Increased microglia activation in neurologically asymptomatic HIV-infected patients receiving effective ART. AIDS 28:67–72. https://doi.org/10.1097/01.aids.0000432467.54003.f7

Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

Gelman BB, Nguyen TP (2010) Synaptic proteins linked to HIV-1 infection and immunoproteasome induction: Proteomic analysis of human synaptosomes. J Neuroimmune Pharmacol 5:92–102. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11481-009-9168-0

Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

Gisslén M, Heslegrave A, Veleva E, Yilmaz A, Andersson LM, Hagberg L, Spudich S, Fuchs D, Price RW, Zetterberg H (2018) CSF concentrations of soluble TREM2 as a marker of microglial activation in HIV-1 infection. Neurol Neuroimmunol Neuroinflamm. 6: e512. https://doi.org/10.1212/NXI.0000000000000512.

Giulian D, Ingeman JE (1988) Colony-stimulating factors as promoters of ameboid microglia. J Neurosci 8:4707–4717. https://doi.org/10.1523/JNEUROSCI.08-12-04707.1988

Article  CAS  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

Goldman-Rakic PS, Leranth C, Williams SM, Mons N, Geffard M (1989) Dopamine synaptic complex with pyramidal neurons in primate cerebral cortex. Proc Natl Acad Sci USA 86:9015–9019. https://doi.org/10.1073/pnas.86.22.9015

Article  CAS  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

Gómez-Nicola D, Fransen NL, Suzzi S, Perry VH (2013) Regulation of microglial proliferation during chronic neurodegeneration. J Neurosci 33:2481–2493. https://doi.org/10.1523/JNEUROSCI.4440-12.2013

Article  CAS  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

Hauser KF, Hahn YK, Adjan VV, Zou S, Buch SK, Nath A, Bruce-Keller AJ, Knapp PE (2009) HIV-1 Tat and morphine have interactive effects on oligodendrocyte survival and morphology. Glia 57:194–206. https://doi.org/10.1002/glia.20746

Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

Heaton RK, Franklin DR, Ellis RJ, McCutchan JA, Letendre SL, Leblanc S, Corkran SH, Duarte NA, Clifford DB, Woods SP, Collier AC, Marra CM, Morgello S, Mindt MR, Taylor MJ, Marcotte TD, Atkinson JH, Wolfson T, Gelman BB, McArthur JC, Simpson DM, Abramson I, Gamst A, Fennema-Notestine C, Jernigan TL, Wong J, Grant I, CHARTER Groups, HNRC Group (2011) HIV-associated neurocognitive disorders before and during the era of combination antiretroviral therapy: Differences in rates, nature, and predictors. J Neurovirol 17:3–16. https://doi.org/10.1007/s13365-010-0006-1

Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

Helm MS, Dankovich TM, Mandad S, Rammner B, Jähne S, Salimi V, Koerbs C, Leibrandt R, Urlaub H, Schikorski T, Rizzoli SO (2021) A large-scale nanoscopy and biochemistry analysis of postsynaptic dendritic spines. Nat Neurosci 24:1151–1162. https://doi.org/10.1038/s41593-021-00874-w

Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

Irons DL, Meinhardt T, Allers C, Kuroda MJ, Kim WK (2019) Overexpression and activation of colony-stimulating factor 1 receptor in the SIV/macaque model of HIV infection and neuroHIV. Brain Pathol 29:826–836. https://doi.org/10.1111/bpa.12731

Article  CAS  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

Jahn R, Schiebler W, Ouimet C, Greengard P (1985) A 38,000-dalton membrane protein (p38) present in synaptic vesicles. Proc Natl Acad Sci USA 82:4137–4141. https://doi.org/10.1073/pnas.82.12.4137

Article  CAS  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

Jang M, Gould E, Xu J, Kim EJ, Kim JH (2019) Oligodendrocytes regulate presynaptic properties and neurotransmission through BDNF signaling in the mouse brainstem. Elife. 8: e42156. doi: https://doi.org/10.7554/eLife.42156.

Ji K, Akgul G, Wollmuth LP, Tsirka SE (2013) Microglia actively regulate the number of functional synapses. PLoS One. 8:e56293. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0056293.

Kalter DC, Nakamura M, Turpin JA, Baca LM, Hoover DL, Dieffenbach C, Ralph P, Gendelman HE, Meltzer MS (1991) Enhanced HIV replication in macrophage colony-stimulating factor-treated monocytes. J Immunol 146:298–306

Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

Kamat R, Morgan E, Marcotte TD, Badiee J, Maich I, Cherner M, de Almeida S, de Pereira AP, Ribeiro CE, Barbosa F, Atkinson JH, Ellis R, HNRP Group (2013) Implications of apathy and depression for everyday functioning in HIV/AIDS in Brazil. J Affect Disord 150:1069–1075. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jad.2012.11.040

Article  Google Scholar 

Kamat R, Woods SP, Marcotte TD, Ellis RJ, Grant I, HIV Neurobehavioral Research Program (HNRP) Group (2012) Implications of apathy for everyday functioning outcomes in persons living with HIV infection. Arch Clin Neuropsychol 27:520–531. https://doi.org/10.1093/arclin/acs055

Article  Google Scholar 

Kesner RP, Churchwell JC (2011) An analysis of rat prefrontal cortex in mediated executive function. Neurobiol Learn Mem 96:417–431. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.nlm.2011.07.002

Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

Knight AC, Brill SA, Queen SE, Tarwater PM, Mankowski JL (2018) Increased microglial CSF1R expression in the SIV/Macaque model of HIV CNS disease. J Neuropathol Exp Neurol 77:199–206. https://doi.org/10.1093/jnen/nlx115

Article  CAS  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

Ko A, Kang G, Hattler JB, Galadima HI, Zhang J, Li Q, Kim WK (2019) Macrophages but not astrocytes harbor HIV DNA in the brains of HIV-1-infected aviremic individuals on suppressive antiretroviral therapy. J Neuroimmune Pharmacol 14:110–119. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11481-018-9809-2

Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

Koenig S, Gendelman HE, Orenstein JM, Dal Canto MC, Pezeshkpour GH, Yungbluth M, Janotta F, Aksamit A, Martin MA, Fauci AS (1986) Detection of AIDS virus in macrophages in brain tissue from AIDS patients with encephalopathy. Science 233:1089–1093. ht