Macklem PT. The physiology of small airways. Am J Respir Crit Care Med. 1998;157:S181–3.

Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

Usmani OS, Singh D, Spinola M, Bizzi A, Barnes PJ. The prevalence of small airways disease in adult asthma: A systematic literature review. Respir Med. 2016;116:19–27.

Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

Boeck L, Gensmer A, Nyilas S, Stieltjes B, Re TJ, Tamm M, et al. Single-Breath Washout Tests to Assess Small Airway Disease in COPD. Chest 2016;150:1091–100.

Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

Incorvaia C, Riario-Sforza GG, Pravettoni C, Yacoub MR, Frati F. Impairment of small airways in COPD patients with frequent exacerbations and effects of treatment with tiotropium. Int J Chron Obstruct Pulmon Dis. 2008;3:123–6.

Article  CAS  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

Stockley JA, Ismail AM, Hughes SM, Edgar R, Stockley RA, Sapey E. Maximal mid-expiratory flow detects early lung disease in α(1)-antitrypsin deficiency. Eur Respir J. 2017;49:1602055.

Skylogianni E, Triga M, Douros K, Bolis K, Priftis KN, Fouzas S, et al. Small-airway dysfunction precedes the development of asthma in children with allergic rhinitis. Allergol Immunopathol (Madr). 2018;46:313–21.

Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

Xiao D, Chen Z, Wu S, Huang K, Xu J, Yang L, et al. Prevalence and risk factors of small airway dysfunction, and association with smoking, in China: findings from a national cross-sectional study. Lancet Respir Med. 2020;8:1081–93.

Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

Lepeule J, Litonjua AA, Coull B, Koutrakis P, Sparrow D, Vokonas PS, et al. Long-term effects of traffic particles on lung function decline in the elderly. Am J Respir Crit Care Med. 2014;190:542–8.

Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

Rice MB, Ljungman PL, Wilker EH, Dorans KS, Gold DR, Schwartz J, et al. Long-term exposure to traffic emissions and fine particulate matter and lung function decline in the Framingham heart study. Am J Respir Crit Care Med. 2015;191:656–64.

Article  CAS  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

Hou D, Ge Y, Chen C, Tan Q, Chen R, Yang Y, et al. Associations of long-term exposure to ambient fine particulate matter and nitrogen dioxide with lung function: A cross-sectional study in China. Environ Int. 2020;144:105977.

Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

Rice MB, Ljungman PL, Wilker EH, Gold DR, Schwartz JD, Koutrakis P, et al. Short-term exposure to air pollution and lung function in the Framingham Heart Study. Am J Respir Crit Care Med. 2013;188:1351–7.

Article  CAS  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

Dauchet L, Hulo S, Cherot-Kornobis N, Matran R, Amouyel P, Edmé JL, et al. Short-term exposure to air pollution: Associations with lung function and inflammatory markers in non-smoking, healthy adults. Environ Int. 2018;121:610–9.

Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

Glencross DA, Ho TR, Camiña N, Hawrylowicz CM, Pfeffer PE. Air pollution and its effects on the immune system. Free Radic Biol Med. 2020;151:56–68.

Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

Salvi S, Blomberg A, Rudell B, Kelly F, Sandström T, Holgate ST, et al. Acute inflammatory responses in the airways and peripheral blood after short-term exposure to diesel exhaust in healthy human volunteers. Am J Respir Crit Care Med. 1999;159:702–9.

Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

Wang C, Xu J, Yang L, Xu Y, Zhang X, Bai C, et al. Prevalence and risk factors of chronic obstructive pulmonary disease in China (the China Pulmonary Health [CPH] study): a national cross-sectional study. Lancet. 2018;391:1706–17.

Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

Ferguson GT, Enright PL, Buist AS, Higgins MW. Office spirometry for lung health assessment in adults: a consensus statement from the National Lung Health Education Program. Respir Care. 2000;45:513–30.

CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

Morris ZQ, Coz A, Starosta D. An isolated reduction of the FEV3/FVC ratio is an indicator of mild lung injury. Chest 2013;144:1117–23.

Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

Vestbo J, Hurd SS, Agusti AG, Jones PW, Vogelmeier C, Anzueto A, et al. Global strategy for the diagnosis, management, and prevention of chronic obstructive pulmonary disease: GOLD executive summary. Am J Respir Crit Care Med. 2013;187:347–65.

Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

Hankinson JL, Odencrantz JR, Fedan KB. Spirometric reference values from a sample of the general U.S. population. Am J Respir Crit Care Med. 1999;159:179–87.

Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

Cai J, Zhao A, Zhao J, Chen R, Wang W, Ha S, et al. Acute effects of air pollution on asthma hospitalization in Shanghai, China. Environ Pollut. 2014;191:139–44.

Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

Ploubidis GB, Silverwood RJ, DeStavola B, Grundy E. Life-Course Partnership Status and Biomarkers in Midlife: Evidence From the 1958 British Birth Cohort. Am J Public Health. 2015;105:1596–603.

Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

Chen R, Kan H, Chen B, Huang W, Bai Z, Song G, et al. Association of particulate air pollution with daily mortality: the China Air Pollution and Health Effects Study. Am J Epidemiol. 2012;175:1173–81.

Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

Cirillo I, Klersy C, Marseglia GL, Vizzaccaro A, Pallestrini E, Tosca M, et al. Role of FEF25%-75% as a predictor of bronchial hyperreactivity in allergic patients. Ann Allergy, Asthma Immunol: Off Publ Am Coll Allergy, Asthma, Immunol. 2006;96:692–700.

Article  Google Scholar 

Xiao D, Chen Z, Wu S, Huang K, Xu J, Yang L, et al. Prevalence and risk factors of small airway dysfunction, and association with smoking, in China: findings from a national cross-sectional study. Lancet Respir Med. 2020;8:1081–1093.

Ji X, Han M, Yun Y, Li G, Sang N. Acute nitrogen dioxide (NO2) exposure enhances airway inflammation via modulating Th1/Th2 differentiation and activating JAK-STAT pathway. Chemosphere 2015;120:722–8.

Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

Wigenstam E, Elfsmark L, Bucht A, Jonasson S. Inhaled sulfur dioxide causes pulmonary and systemic inflammation leading to fibrotic respiratory disease in a rat model of chemical-induced lung injury. Toxicology 2016;368-369:28–36.

Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

Lazarus SC, Wong HH, Watts MJ, Boushey HA, Lavins BJ, Minkwitz MC. The leukotriene receptor antagonist zafirlukast inhibits sulfur dioxide-induced bronchoconstriction in patients with asthma. Am J Respir Crit Care Med. 1997;156:1725–30.

Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

Santus P, Russo A, Madonini E, Allegra L, Blasi F, Centanni S, et al. How air pollution influences clinical management of respiratory diseases. A case-crossover study in Milan. Respir Res. 2012;13:95.

Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

Doiron D, de Hoogh K, Probst-Hensch N, Fortier I, Cai Y, De Matteis S, et al. Air pollution, lung function and COPD: results from the population-based UK Biobank study. Eur Respir J. 2019;54:1802140.

Sunyer J, Basagaña X, Belmonte J, Antó JM. Effect of nitrogen dioxide and ozone on the risk of dying in patients with severe asthma. Thorax 2002;57:687–93.

Article  CAS  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

Poynter ME, Persinger RL, Irvin CG, Butnor KJ, van Hirtum H, Blay W, et al. Nitrogen dioxide enhances allergic airway inflammation and hyperresponsiveness in the mouse. Am J Physiol Lung Cell Mol Physiol. 2006;290:L144–52.

Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

Canova C, Torresan S, Simonato L, Scapellato ML, Tessari R, Visentin A, et al. Carbon monoxide pollution is associated with decreased lung function in asthmatic adults. Eur Respir J. 2010;35:266–72.

Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

Sekiguchi K, Yasui F, Fujii E. Capturing of gaseous and particulate pollutants into liquid phase by a water/oil column using microbubbles. Chemosphere 2020;256:126996.

Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

Nováková Z, Novák J, Kitanovski Z, Kukučka P, Smutná M, Wietzoreck M, et al. Toxic potentials of particulate and gaseous air pollutant mixtures and the role of PAHs and their derivatives. Environ Int. 2020;139:105634.

Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

Brunekreef B, Holgate ST. Air pollution and health. Lancet 2002;360:1233–42.

Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

Li Y, Rittenhouse-Olson K, Scheider WL, Mu L. Effect of particulate matter air pollution on C-reactive protein: a review of epidemiologic studies. Rev Environ Health. 2012;27:133–49.

Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

Chen X, Liu F, Niu Z, Mao S, Tang H, Li N, et al. The association between short-term exposure to ambient air pollution and fractional exhaled nitric oxide level: A systematic review and meta-analysis of panel studies. Environ Pollut. 2020;265:114833.

Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

Wooding DJ, Ryu MH, Li H, Alexis NE, Pena O, Carlsten C. Acute air pollution exposure alters neutrophils in never-smokers and at-risk humans. Eur Respir J. 2020;55:1901495.

Blomberg A, Krishna MT, Helleday R, Söderberg M, Ledin MC, Kelly FJ, et al. Persistent airway inflammation but accommodated antioxidant and lung function responses after repeated daily exposure to nitrogen dioxide. Am J Respir Crit Care Med. 1999;159:536–43.

Article  CAS  PubMed