This study applied a novel statistical approach of network analysis to examine PIU symptomatology by gender. This study identified gender differences in global and local connectivity for adolescent PIU symptoms. The PIU symptom network of male adolescents was more densely connected than that of females, and the network structure differed between genders. “Increasing time for satisfaction” (PIU24) was a particularly central symptom in female adolescents, whereas “feeling depressed” (PIU10) was a particularly central symptom in male adolescents. In addition, female adolescents showed greater symptoms of social withdrawal than males, including “reduced involvement with friends” (PIU12) and “fewer interactions with families” (PIU17), and “fewer leisure activities” (PIU18). Conversely, male adolescents presented more interpersonal conflicts than females, including “impaired relationships” (PIU7) and “complaints by others about too much time online” (PIU1). The above findings enhance our understanding of gender differential risk and features of adolescent PIU symptoms, and also underline the need to consider gender in research and clinical practices. Our discussion focuses on the strength of centrality, the most stable feature, as found in other studies [33].

Central symptoms of PIU in female and male adolescents

The symptoms with the highest strength centrality were either the same or different in female and male adolescents. “Reluctant to stop” (PIU6) exerted the largest effect in both genders, indicating a cross-sample central symptom. Although the participants just wanted to surf the Internet for a little while, they felt reluctant to discontinue, which suggests increasing over-dependence [4]. One reason could be that the Internet has emerged as a vital platform to fulfill social needs for adolescents, and adolescence is a critical period for searching for relatedness [34]. Another possibility is that adolescents nowadays rely greatly on the Internet for recreation. Therefore, they may experience negative feelings, such as restlessness and loneliness when disconnected from the Internet [1]. This symptom could have a severe impact on adolescents because it could allow other symptoms to occur [29].

Some core symptoms were differentiated by gender. “Increasing time for satisfaction” (PIU24) was a particularly central symptom in female adolescents, whereas “feeling depressed” (PIU10) was a particularly central symptom in male adolescents. The differential symptoms by gender may reflect different motivations and types of Internet use between female and male adolescents. One meta-analysis found that females were more likely to exhibit social media addiction and less likely to display Internet gaming disorder than males [35]. Since female adolescents often value relationships more than males, they tend to use the Internet for social networking in response to feelings of emptiness when their social needs are not otherwise fully met [36]. Once the threshold of Internet use increases, individuals require more time to reach the degrees of satisfaction previously achieved [37]. In this case, “increasing time for satisfaction” (PIU24) may greatly trigger other symptoms in females, such as “less sleep” (PIU23) found in the present study. The excessive time on Internet use may reduce adolescents’ sleep time, and this phenomenon is more common among females [38]. Thus, the central symptom of “increasing time for satisfaction” (PIU24) is more likely to lead to sleep problems in female adolescents.

In addition, we found that male adolescents feel depressed when not online, which is consistent with previous studies that depressive feeling was dominant to males’ PIU [17, 18]. One explanation is that male adolescents are more likely to engage in PIU to gain feelings of success and achievement that can be provided by online gaming [39]. While Internet use decreases or is discontinued, males may be prone to depressive feelings. Consequently, “feeling depressed” (PIU10) could severely influence other symptoms of PIU among adolescent males.

Gender differences in global connectivity of PIU Networks

Our results support the hypothesis that global connectivity would be stronger among adolescent males than among females, which is in line with previous findings about males being at a higher risk of PIU [10, 14]. A highly connected network is more likely to develop strong self-reinforcing loops of symptom interactions [24]. Our results indicate that once male adolescents begin to engage in PIU, they tend to display a more strongly connected symptom network than females, and ultimately, males might be prone to involve in long-term PIU. One possible explanation is that males easily become addicted to Internet gaming, which impairs executive control [13]. Worse, decreased impulse control can dramatically exacerbate PIU [40]. Another explanation could be that compared with females, males tend to suppress or avoid emotions and apply fewer adaptive emotional regulation strategies [41]. Therefore, males are more likely to use the Internet as a coping strategy—although it may trigger vicious circles of negative emotion and PIU, in turn aggravating PIU symptoms. In summary, our findings help explain that chronically higher levels of PIU are more commonly observed in males than in females [42].

In addition to global strength, gender differences also exist in the network structure of PIU, which reflects different symptom associations by gender. In general, our findings indicate significant gender differences in the global connectivity of PIU networks. Below, we discuss more detailed results from the perspective of local connectivity.

Gender differences in local connectivity of PIU Networks

We observed that local connectivity (indicated by symptom associations and central symptoms) varied by gender, which extends the literature on gender differences in PIU symptomatology. We found that female and male adolescents differed in the interacting ways and the importance levels of PIU symptoms. The following discussion focuses on two of the gender differential features of PIU symptoms: direct and indirect associations, and different effects of interpersonal symptoms as well.

First, the edge between “uncontrollable checking” (PIU19) and “failure to stop” (PIU22) differed by gender. If female adolescents are unable to resist going online, they are unable to reduce Internet use. Alternatively, if they fail to cut down their Internet use, they may feel that they are losing control. Among males, this edge existed through an irrational belief that “life is boring and empty without the Internet” [21], which is a core belief among individuals who have difficulty controlling their Internet use. Because they believe that life is boring without the Internet, they become loss of control and fail to leave it. Hence, the treatment for changing this irrational belief could be helpful to adolescent males.

In addition, interpersonal symptoms of PIU co-occurred quite differently between female and male adolescents. Among females, “fewer leisure activities” (PIU18) was highly connected with time-related problems, such as “sitting up online” (PIU26) and “longer than intended” (PIU3). Specifically, when female adolescents spend too much time on the Internet and even through the whole night, they may have not enough time and effort to put in the real life and have few leisure activities offline. As for males, “fewer interactions with families” (PIU17) was highly connected with health problems, including “backache” (PIU13) and “physical deterioration” (PIU21). The results indicate that when male adolescents indulge in the Internet and have few interactions with families, they are inclined to select the Internet for recreation instead of sports exercises, which may be harmful to their physical health. Thus, their interpersonal and health problems because of long-time Internet use are strongly connected. These gender differences extend the findings of previous studies on gender differences in the patterns and consequences of the PIU [11, 12].

Moreover, regarding core symptoms of PIU, despite some common areas across gender, several symptoms differed between female and male adolescents, most of which were related to interpersonal and health problems owing to PIU. Gender differences in the association between PIU and interpersonal impairments have been reported previously [19]. We found more specific symptom differences that female adolescents showed greater symptoms of social withdrawal than males, including “reduced involvement with friends” (PIU12), “fewer interactions with families” (PIU17), and “fewer leisure activities” (PIU18). Conversely, male adolescents presented more interpersonal conflicts than females, including “impaired relationships” (PIU7) and “complaints by others about too much time online” (PIU1). The gender differences could be explained by the different ways females and males express conflicts [43]: when adolescents experience interpersonal problems with families or friends because of their over-dependence on the Internet, females tended to express conflict covertly (e.g., fewer or avoidant interactions) and males tend to express conflict overtly (e.g., conflictive interactions).

Specifically, the Internet creates excellent opportunities for adolescents with relational resource deficits to be socially efficacious and develop meaningful relationships online [37]. On the one hand, female adolescents whose social needs are not fully met in the real life tend to use the Internet for compensation [13]. However, such evasion could further decrease their real-life interactions and quickly activate other PIU symptoms. On the other hand, male adolescents who use the Internet as a way of avoiding interpersonal conflicts may instead aggravate conflicts with families and peers and damage real-life relationships. Thus, the conflictual relationships that develop because of PIU may trigger other PIU symptoms and severely impair male adolescents [29].

Clinical implications

The symptoms of PIU in female and male adolescents were either the same or different, which leads to gender-specific differentiated intervention strategies. For both genders, “reluctant to stop” (PIU6) should be the target symptom in interventions. Specifically, it is necessary to help adolescents understand why they do not want to reduce the time they spend on the Internet and then provide related strategies. For example, social skills deficit theory asserts that adolescents with poor social competence may be more likely to establish relationships in the anonymous virtual world than those occurring in real life, which may result in the vulnerability of PIU [44]. Therefore, interventions focused on enhancing adolescents’ social skills are critical to decreasing their PIU symptoms [45].

In addition, it is also important to focus on “increasing time for satisfaction” (PIU24) for females and “feeling depressed” (PIU10) for males. For the symptom of “increasing time for satisfaction” (PIU24), some educational programs aiming at organizing daily activities and developing new healthy Internet use concepts and habits may be effective [46]. In terms of the symptom of “feeling depressed” (PIU10), mindfulness-based cognitive behavioral intervention can regulate an addiction-related distressed emotional state [47]. Moreover, female and male adolescents showed different features of PIU symptom clusters (e.g., interpersonal problems): social withdrawal symptoms for females and interpersonal conflict problems for males, which requires differential interventions on their motivations. Meanwhile, interpersonal and time management problems are more likely to co-occur among female adolescents, whereas interpersonal and health problems are more likely to co-occur among male adolescents. Thus, cognitive behavioral therapy focused on improving time management skills may be more beneficial to female adolescents [48] and sports intervention may be more beneficial to male adolescents [49].

Limitations and future directions

Despite its novel findings and significant implications, this study has some limitations. First, we used self-report measures to determine participants’ PIU symptoms, which could not indicate a formal diagnosis and might be limited by self-report biases [50]. Future studies on PIU are encouraged to use structured clinical interviews and collect real-world behaviors. Second, considering the investigation’s cross-sectional design, directionality between PIU symptoms should not be causally interpreted. A future longitudinal study should identify the symptoms that exhibit the highest out-strength and may strongly influence other symptoms over time.