Real-world data and evidence in pain research: a qualitative systematic review of methods in current practice

1. Introduction

Real-world evidence (RWE) is defined as “information on health care that is derived from multiple sources outside typical clinical research settings”.77 It is a rapidly expanding field of interest: technological advances of the past decades, especially the wide availability of large databases and computational methods to search them, have enabled secondary research use of data not initially collected for this purpose. It has even been suggested that RWE studies can—in limited settings—serve as a complement to randomized controlled trials (RCTs).17 Although increased value of routine data would be generally welcomed, the lack of randomization along with often limited data quality and quality control (eg, incomplete data, incorrect data), and potential confounding that can have large effects, emphasize that valid RWE can only be drawn from well-designed, carefully conducted studies using well-curated data and accounting for data quality issues.86

As part of an ACTTION (Analgesic, Anesthetic, and Addiction Clinical Trial Translations, Innovations, Opportunities, and Networks) IMMPACT (Initiative on Methods, Measurement, and Pain Assessment in Clinical Trials) effort, this qualitative systematic review aims to identify approaches used to assess effectiveness of pain treatments in RWE studies and to provide an overview of methods used to date to design, conduct, and analyze RWE studies in pain research. Because this is a review of methods, we explicitly do not aim to assess results of these studies or perform a meta-analysis thereof. We focus on design of studies using retrospective data comparing 2 or more groups, to focus on the challenging aspects of retrospective design and how providing valid causal inferences about the interventions in the setting of such noncomparability can be made despite no randomization. Our discussion excludes 2 large fields of potential RWE studies: prospective trials, which was covered previously in our work on “pragmatic trials”,33 and single-arm cohort studies because they contribute to a separate trail of evidence.

2. Methods 2.1. Protocol and deviations

We registered a protocol for this review under the DOI 10.17605/OSF.IO/KGVRM on the Open Science Framework. There were no major deviations from the protocol.

2.2. Search strategy

For our systematic search, PubMed, EMBASE, and Web of Science were queried combining various terms from 3 domains: data sources, analytic methods, and pain research. At least one term of each domain had to be included. Additional studies were included as solicited from the author group.

Thus, the general search string was as follows:

(“Real-world data” OR “Claims data” OR “Billing data” OR “clinical data” OR “pharmacy data” OR “Administrative data” OR “Electronic medical records” OR “Electronic health records” OR “Health system” OR “Registry” OR “Insurance” OR “Third-party payer” OR “retrospective cohort”) AND

(“Real-world evidence” OR “Causal inference” OR “Propensity score” OR “Predictive model” OR “Confounding factors” OR “Time-varying confounding” OR “Risk set matching” OR “Path analysis”) AND “Pain.” The search string was optimized for each of the 3 databases.

Both title and abstract and full-text screening were performed in duplicate (by JV and BK). Disagreements between reviewers were mediated by a consensus discussion. Data extraction was done in singular (by JV).

Duplicates were identified before screening, based on PubMed ID, DOI, and title, journal, and author list, using automated methods. Screening was based on abstracts only and aimed for sensitivity over specificity (ie, excluding only articles that are clearly out of scope) at this stage. During full-text screening and annotation, secondary exclusion was conducted for articles included at abstract screening while not fitting the inclusion criteria on full-text stage.

Additional studies identified by search of the reference list of included studies or solicited by the author group were included if not found in the systematic search.

2.3. Inclusion and exclusion criteria

All full-text original research on real-world data and evidence on effectiveness or comparative or comparable effectiveness of treatments where pain was the primary outcome criterion were included. Studies with pain as a secondary outcome were included if pain was central to the aim of the study, ie, if (1) the primary outcome was a composite outcome including pain or (2) pain was a necessary inclusion criterion. Only studies comparing 2 or more groups were included. Reviews, conference proceedings, book chapters, and abstracts were excluded. Studies focussing on other health aspects and only peripherally reporting pain were excluded. Articles for which no full texts could be retrieved through online access, interlibrary loan, or by contacting authors directly were excluded. Furthermore, articles written in languages with which the authors were not fluent and for which no native or fluent speaker could be recruited through the wider network of the authors were excluded.

2.4. Extraction items

Extraction was focussed on methodological items and general study characteristics, such as condition studied, pain type (nociceptive/nociplastic/neuropathic/postsurgery and acute/chronic), use of hospital records vs registry data, single or multicentre data, number of patients screened and included, and equal or unequal group size. We extracted statistical design aspects specifically focussing on mention of propensity scores, use of multiple regression (outside of propensity scores), instrumental variables, sensitivity analysis, and mention of any other inference methods.

3. Results

A total of 536 studies were screened (Fig. 1 for inclusion flowchart). Based on our inclusion/exclusion criteria, through full-text screening, we identified 61 studies for inclusion.1,3,6–8,11,13–15,21,22,24–31,34–41,44–46,49–61,63–67,69–73,75,78–80,82–84,87 We included no additional studies through reference search and 4 additional studies solicited from coauthors that were not otherwise included,19,23,43,81 resulting in a total sample of 65 studies, all of which were published in the English language; hence, no studies were excluded based on language.

F1Figure 1.:

PRISMA flowchart.

A list of all extraction items with summary statistics can be found in Table 1. The studies identified were remarkably similar: 49 of 65 reported on surgical interventions; of the remaining16; 3 studied alternative treatments8,25,29; 4 studied epidemiological risk factors like obesity,22 old age,21 opioid abuse,23 and smoking43,59; only 4 studies investigated pharmacological interventions28,67,71,81; the remaining studied patient–professional–interaction or behavioural medicine,19,66 radiotherapy,49 implants,69 or compared 2 disease progressions under routine care.26 Of the 49 studies on surgical interventions, 23 focussed on postsurgical pain, with 3 investigating chronic postsurgical pain.11, 65, 80

Table 1 - Extraction items and summary. Year published 2009–2021 Condition studied (free text)  Pain type 11 neuropathic, 28 nociceptive, 22 post-surgical  Chronicity 35 chronic, 26 acute Pain description (free text)  Data source 33 registry, 28 hospital records Data source description (free text)  Single center? 22 yes  n Participating centers (can be left blank if single center = yes) Median: 36  n Patients (total screened) Median: 1828  n Patients (total included) Median: 560  Groups of equal size? 37 yes  n group 1 Median: 195  n group 2 (if sizes are equal, leave blank) Median: 196  n group 3 (leave blank if only 2 groups) Median: 462  n group 4 (leave blank if 3 or 2 groups) Median: 108  Use of propensity scoring 58 yes  Use of multiple regression models 13 yes  Use of instrumental variable models 0 yes  Use of mediation analysis 0 yes  Use of other inference or correction models 1 yes  Use of sensitivity analyses 17 yes  Use of term "real-world data" 8 yes  Use of term "real-world evidence" 1 yes  Registration mentioned 5 yes  Protocol available 4 yes  Primary hypothesis confirmed 39 yes  If no, noninferior? 12 yes

Very few studies mentioned a study registration13 or provided a link or identifier of a publicly accessible protocol in a central register.46,51,53,63 The majority (39 of 65) reported significant differences in their primary group comparison; of the remaining 26, 12 reported comparable effectiveness based on nonsignificant P values.3,6,28,30,31,34,39,49,75,78–80

A majority of 58 studies used propensity scores as a means of adjusting for potential confounders, with only 7 studies not reporting use of propensity scores.8,21,23,28,58,59,81 A propensity score is the probability of being assigned to a particular intervention group given a set of potentially confounding baseline variables. It reduces the possibly large set of patient or clinical characteristics (some or all of which could confound the relationship under study, eg, age, social status, ethnicity, sex) to a single variable (or k − 1 variables if there are k intervention groups). The propensity score(s) can be used in various ways to adjust for potential confounding without having to explicitly include all of these confounders in the statistical model,12 including propensity score matching, stratification, and inverse probability weighting.9 Of the studies using propensity scores, most used propensity score matching, in which for each case, exactly one control (with a similar propensity score to that of the case) is drawn from a usually larger pool of potential controls. The minority of studies (20 of 58) used propensity scores in regression analysis with unequal group sizes.1,7,19,25,29,30,34,36,37,43,46,61,65,69,71,80,82–84,87 Multiple regression techniques were used, instead or in addition to propensity scores, by 13 studies.8,19,23,29,43,53,58,59,61,71,81,83,84 We could find no mention of instrumental variables in the studies included. Only 17 of 65 studies provided sensitivity analyses to demonstrate robustness of their findings to violation of assumptions in the primary model.1,11,14,23–25,27,29,30,52,56,66,67,71,79–81

Roughly half of the studies (28/65) included hospital or outpatient records instead of publicly accessible repositories. Of these, 615,28,36,54,69,82 were multicentre studies, the remaining 22 single-centre studies, whereas all 33 studies using publicly accessible repositories were using multicentre data. For multicentre studies, if the number of participating centres was given, it ranged between 215 and 524.38–41 Study sample size differed significantly, from 5613 to moer than 300,00025 (median: 560) patients included. Screening of record numbers ranged between 5613 and more than 5 million records27 (median: 1,828). Included patient number was higher for registry vs hospital record-based studies (median: n = 1,741 vs n = 170), multicentre (median: n = 1,397) vs single-centre studies (median: n = 172), and studies without 1:1 case matching (unequal group sizes: median n = 1,452, equal group sizes: median n = 375). This picture was similar for screened records.

Surprisingly, in this systematic search trying to identify real-word data and evidence studies, only 6 reports used the term “real-world data” in the full text,26,28,29,71,79,87 only one used the term “real-world evidence”,28 and only 2 studies used the term “real-world” in the title.28,71 Despite no time filter in our search, most studies were conducted recently, with only one published in 2009,66 7 in 2014 to 16, 31 in 2017 to 2019, and 26 since 2020.

4. Discussion

In this review, we summarize the current practice of studies using real-world data in pain research, focusing on studies comparing at least 2 groups.

4.1. An evolving field

Although we did not use a time filter for our search, it is apparent that the field is moving fast: of all studies included, only one predated 2010, and more than one-third were published since 2020, with more studies on the way, as evidenced by published protocols.10,47,62,68 This reflects large databases becoming publicly available recently, improved search methods and data base indexing, and growing awareness of using routinely collected health data for research purposes. Although some sources have been created specifically for future research, like the Spine Tango Registry6,61,79,87 and the Collaborative Health Outcomes Information Registry (CHOIR),5,23,43,74 in other cases, large data sets of national health bodies were made accessible to enable research. These often include naturally large unified systems, like the US Department of Veterans Affairs85 or the United Kingdom's National Health Service, a single-payer system, under which UK residents have single identification numbers under which multiple records across multiple health services are identifiable.16 Such secondary use of data should certainly be welcomed because it can increase research value without additional burden on patients.

4.2. Terminology is ill defined

One of the surprising results of this review was how rarely the terms “real-world data” and “real-world evidence” were used in reports, with fewer than 6 articles mentioning “real-world data” as a phrase, just one article using the term “real-world evidence”,28 and only 2 studies using “real-world” as a phrase in the title. At the same time, the term “real-world” is frequently used to describe investigations like pragmatic trials that we would not necessarily classify as “real-world evidence” studies, as a means of distancing them from laboratory settings. There is little consensus regarding what the term RWE should be used for, and if it is the best term to use after all.77 This aspect is nontrivial because if RWE studies are to be used for evidence appraisal as an alternative to conventional RCT data for treatment decisions, studies need to be accessible and robust for evidence synthesis by means of systematic reviews and meta-analyses. However, clinical trials use clearly defined terms that are distinct and clear. Terms like “randomized, placebo-controlled, and double-blind” will be in the title of all randomized, placebo-controlled, double-blind clinical trials, thanks to initiatives like CONSORT.16 This is not the case for RWE studies. Searching for sensitivity (eg, searching PubMed for “pain AND (real-world OR real world)”) will lead to thousands of findings, increasing the workload of systematic reviews of the field, with a very low specificity. “In addition, the term “real world” will not be used by many relevant studies, suggesting that even such a search string would not be entirely sensitive. This also indicates that the search conducted here was likely not exhaustive but can only provide a partial picture of real-world studies.”

Therefore, it will be critical for the field to agree on standard terminology and quality of methods and assessment, to lead to a body of work that can contribute to evidence synthesis in medicine.

4.3. A monoculture of statistics

More than 90% of the studies included in our analysis used propensity scores to account for potential confounding, making it by far the dominant method. This may partly be the result of our search string (which included “propensity score” as a term). However, other statistical methods in our string were not picked up at all. Propensity score matching or adjustment is an appropriate method to reducing confounding effects. However, these methods depend on the measurement and inclusion of all important confounders. More surprising to us was the wide use of propensity matching over other uses of propensity scores, such as stratification or inverse probability weighting, especially in large databases. The absence of more modern methods, such as marginal structural models, was conspicuous, possibly because of the relative simplicity of implementing propensity score-based methods. The use of appropriate statistical methods for drawing valid causal inferences is a crucial element for the success of RWE studies, and the potential of emerging methods has been shown.2,4,18,76 The fast-emerging field of causal inference develops methods designated to drawing high degrees of evidence from nonexperimental data32 and can be especially used in RWE studies.48

4.4. Registration and group differences

Most studies that met the eligibility criteria for this review reported a statistically significant difference in the primary comparison. We would argue that this is than what should be expected. The 2 principal sources of unexpectedly high rates of significant findings are (1) reporting of false-positives, due to a failure to properly account for potential confounding, and (2) the pressure of publishing “positive” findings, ie, publication bias.

The risk of making multiple comparisons and selectively publishing significant results or HARKing (hypothesizing after the results are known42) is increased in retrospective data studies, where the research question can be more easily changed, or a secondary question elevated to the primary one. Currently, it is not expected nor standard practice to register and publish protocols, as shown by the low number of protocols available for the studies in this analysis. However, the necessary tools are widely available, and we encourage authors to make use of them voluntarily. Going forward, a rigorous mandate for registration of studies, including protocols and hypotheses being publicly available, could improve this situation. However, this will be partly dependent on time-stamped access to data repositories and proof that registration took place before data access. Currently, we believe that the risk of publication bias or HARKing is too high to allow for RWE studies to be treated alongside RCTs in evidence synthesis. Sensitivity analyses are also not part of standard recommendations or practice. These will be of a similar importance moving forward because they show the robustness of results to violations of the assumption that are critical for the validity of causal inference methods.

4.5. Limitations

Although we aimed for a systematic, comprehensive approach to capturing methods used in the field, we cannot assume that this review was in all ways comprehensive. As explained above, constructing a search string for RWE studies can be challenging, making it difficult to find all potentially relevant studies. It is likely that there are studies meeting our inclusion criteria that we did not discover using our search strategy. The fact that we included additional studies suggested by authors implies that there will likely be additional studies missing from the search. In addition, we focused on studies comparing at least 2 groups, which excludes a large proportion of RWE studies. We did so because we were specifically interested in methodological approaches to comparing groups. Our eligibility criteria were partly based on subjective judgment (eg, excluding studies only “peripherally reporting pain”). We acknowledge that this may introduce a bias and decrease generalizability. Moreover, we found that most included studies were published relatively recently, but this could be partly because of the search strategy, which used terms that have become popular only in the past decade. Although we found a high proportion of studies reporting significant results, we cannot exclude the possibility of this finding being linked to an imperfect search strategy as well.

5. Way forward

Despite current limitations, RWE studies in pain research already contribute information to the evidence base. This is often the case in questions where RCTs are less frequently conducted, especially in surgery and alternative medicine. In these fields, RWE studies are not considered in competition with RCTs but are rather seen as a complementary source of evidence.20 The use of rigorous causal inference methods will allow for high-level evidence to be drawn from RWD studies.32,48 As is to be expected with emergent technologies, methodological improvements and increased rigor are needed. Statisticians and epidemiologists should be included from the early planning stage, preregistration as well as transparent project timelines should be mandatory, and a widely accepted standard terminology will be needed to make these works accessible and the evidence generated of high quality.

Disclosures

The authors have no conflicts of interest to declare.

Acknowledgement

Financial support was provided by the Analgesic, Anesthetic, and Addiction Clinical Trial Translations, Innovations, Opportunities, and Networks (ACTTION) public–private partnership with the US Food and Drug Administration (FDA), which has received research contracts, grants, or other revenue from the FDA, multiple pharmaceutical and device companies, philanthropy, royalties, and other sources. The views expressed in this article are those of the authors and no official endorsement by the FDA or the pharmaceutical and device companies that provided unrestricted grants to support ACTTION should be inferred.

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