There is a growing consensus that the changing climate system is the most pressing challenge of this century.1 According to a report issued by the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC), the damage caused by global warming is likely to be irreversible and catastrophic if global action is not taken quickly to stabilize the rise in temperature of the Earth's surface.2 The growing awareness that all parts of the planet are being affected by environmental changes is also reflected in warnings from the US National Aeronautics and Space Administration, NASA on the effects of global warming including1,2:

‘2021 Tied for 6th Warmest Year in Continued Trend’

‘US Sea levels to raise up to a foot in the next 30 years’

‘Reducing Emissions to Lessen Climate Change Would Yield Dramatic Health Benefits by 2030’3

Despite this compelling information on climate change from reputable scientific organizations, people, both individually and collectively, vary considerably in their environmental ethics, that is their perceptions about environmental risks and their beliefs about how these risks should be managed.1 In addition, recent scientific evidence suggests that the global environmental crisis is accelerating and current environmental laws have not been able to reverse the trend.4 One group, the Rights-of-Nature movement, argues that existing laws regulate, rather than stop, the destruction of the natural world.5 The Rights-of-Nature movement, which advocates for the legal rights of ecosystems, challenges existing laws that frame nature as a "resource" to be owned, used, and degraded by humanity.6

Both individual and cultural worldviews and their associated values are strong predictors of concern about climate change. Specifically, research indicates that there is a strong relationship between an individual's worldview and their willingness to change behavior in order to mitigate climate change. In addition, cultural worldviews are important determinants of a society's environmental ethics, since they determine how a society evaluates and responds to environmental risks.7

This research suggests that understanding worldviews that in part determine environmental ethics is a critical aspect of managing environmental crisis. In this paper, we propose that a necessary step to addressing our current environmental crisis is a shift in worldviews, specifically, a shift away from the dominant cultural materialist worldview that prioritizes human needs and desires, which justify the excessive exploitation of planetary resources. This would be replaced by what we call a postmaterialist worldview that places humanity within the larger context of planetary interconnection, thus prioritizing humanity's stewardship and preservation of planetary resources. We believe that changing the worldview of both individuals and society is KEY to changing environmental ethics, including attitudes, beliefs, and actions toward the environment.

Recent neuroscience research8,9 suggests that neural filters and processing networks within our brain both drastically limit our perceptual abilities and create unconstrained self-referential thought that prioritizes an individual's needs over those of others.10 Thus, a purpose of this paper is to explore the way filters within the brain contribute to a limited and self-referential conceptual framework that is often characteristic of a materialist worldview. We begin with a definition of worldview, discuss the underlying concepts of both the materialist and post-materialist worldviews including their impact on environmental ethics, then explore the various types of neural filters that contribute to a materialist worldview, and finally explore methods for modifying neural filters and changing underlying worldviews.

“What is a worldview?” A worldview is a set of interrelated assumptions about the nature of the world. It is the interpretive lens one uses to understand reality and one's existence within it.11 The term worldview comes from the German word, Weltanschauung, meaning a view or perspective on the world or the universe used to describe one's total outlook on life.

An individual's worldview is determined by a number of factors. A major contributing factor is the worldview that is dominant within the socio-cultural context in which they live.11,12 Other factors include inherited characteristics, background experiences, and the values, attitudes, and habits they have developed. Thus, while some parts of a worldview are shared by many people in a community, other parts differ, making each individual's worldview unique.13 Most importantly, science tells us that we are typically unaware of our worldview, and worldviews are very hard to change.12

A cultural worldview refers to the common concept of reality shared by a particular group of people, usually referred to as a culture, and is often synonymously used to refer to an ethnic group,14 although we acknowledge culture is not bound by ethnicity alone. Culture is defined as a system of knowledge, beliefs, patterns of behavior, artifacts and institutions that are created, learned, and shared by a group of people.15 Commonality across individual worldviews often makes up the prevailing cultural worldview held by the group, and vice versa, such that individual worldviews and cultural worldviews work in a mutually constitutive cycle. As with individual worldviews, cultural worldviews are often held unconsciously, particularly when they are dominant within a particular society, because they come to be seen as ‘normative’. They tend to be endorsed and reinforced as normative by social institutions, such as, for example, education and justice, which enable worldviews to be socially regulated and maintained, even if they are not necessarily serving a collective good. However, it is often a group of people that have the ability to hold power over social institutions that play a role in reinforcing cultural worldviews that influence the rest of the society's beliefs and actions, creating what is considered the dominant culture.1416 As already noted, individuals from the dominant culture spread their dominant ideologies through institutions such as education, religion, law and politics, among others, often suppressing minority cultures or subcultures. These ideologies shape what is considered valuable, thus establishing the validity and perceived legitimacy of different sources of knowledge and indeed what is considered knowledge, endorsing some while disparaging others. Finally, while a dominant culture can change over time in response to internal or external factors, like individual worldviews, cultural worldviews are very resilient and resist change.16,17

Of relevance to this paper is the fact that worldviews define our relationship to the environment, both consciously and unconsciously, including our responsibility to the environment and the planet as a whole. This paper examines two specific worldviews and their potential environmental impact. The materialist worldview, considered by many to be the dominant worldview of Western society, and the so-called post-materialist worldview.

The materialist worldview that is currently dominant across many Western cultures holds that matter is the fundamental substance or reality of nature.18 Thus, all things, including the mind and consciousness are secondary, and a product of material interactions. As the material world is seen as primary, when the body dies it is assumed that our consciousness is also destroyed. And as material resources are prized, they are considered a necessary commodity for existence. But because material resources are limited, each human being may be driven to compete for these limited resources of the world. This worldview leads to self-referential thinking and a sense of separation not just between individuals, but between humanity and the rest of nature.

What is the role of nature in a materialist worldview? In the self-referential thinking of a materialist worldview, the natural world is considered separate from and secondary to humanity. Humans are viewed as having a sense of interiority and consciousness, while nature is typically considered devoid of consciousness.18 Thus, the concept of “rights” applies to humans but does not extend to the rest of the natural world, including the living species within it. In a materialist worldview, limited natural resources are viewed as elements to be extracted and exploited by humanity; natural resources exist solely to serve the needs of humanity.11,12

How does holding a materialist worldview affect a response to the environmental crisis? A materialist worldview suggests that humans have only limited responsibility for caring for the natural world. Humanity is not responsible for ensuring that all life on earth is sustained, but focuses on human life. Thus, there is no real recognition that our actions are significantly affecting the earth's capacity to self-heal, to sustain all life on the planet.

When we go beyond materialism, to a postmaterialist worldview, the mind and consciousness are considered first order realities, to which matter is subject, and secondary.18 Thus consciousness, being primary, has the ability to affect and transform the material world. In a postmaterialist world research is accepted as valid on topics like nonlocality, including nonlocal awareness, mystical experiences, and energy healing. And the data often open us to new understandings of the nature of reality, interconnectedness, and healing.

Notably, worldviews in a postmaterialist era have many similarities with worldviews that have existed within the psyche of Indigenous communities for millennia, but have not been readily integrated into Western societies.19 While we acknowledge the heterogeneity of Indigenous peoples, common to many Indigenous worldviews is the notion of inter-connectivity between all phenomena occurring across space and time, and between the tangible and intangible.20 Indigenous worldviews are inherently spiritual and holistic; the whole is valued more than its parts, and there is an intricate balance that needs to be maintained between the parts for the whole to function effectively. Included in this interconnectivity are humans, who cannot be disentangled from the wider ecosystems they are a part of; events affecting the human realm impact the environment, and events affecting the environment inevitably affect humanity.20 Indigenous worldviews typically assert that all life is sacred and that all life forms are connected. Thus, humans are not above others in the circle of life and cannot hold dominion over them. Everything that exists in the circle is one unity, one heart. According to this view, to understand ourselves requires understanding, connecting with, and respecting all that is around us. To hurt the land and the community is to hurt oneself.19.21

A postmaterialist worldview is also grounded in a perception of unity and planetary wholeness,18 and thus engenders compassion for all beings on the planet and a sense of responsibility to care for our earthly home. In a postmaterialist era, optimizing the environment is critical to maintaining the health of plants, animals, and humans who make the earth their home. This would be brought forth through a refining of characteristics of human perception, behavior, and interactions, including an increased perception of unity and thus compassion for all beings on the planet. This compassion would engender a sense of responsibility to care for our earthly home.

What are some of the factors that contribute to a shift from materialist to postmaterialist worldviews? Research suggests that certain experiences can change the nature of the individual's inner state, and this can result in a profound transformation in worldview.22,23 Surprisingly, this research also suggests that transformational experiences are not uncommon, occurring frequently among individuals who meditate or are deeply immersed in nature, the arts or athletics. Here are a few perceptions of this type of experience from different individuals:

Explorer Richard Byrd said of his sojourn in the arctic, “I could feel no doubt of man's oneness with the universe. It was a feeling that transcended reason.” Champion French skier, Patrick Vallencant commented, “At the beginning of any steep descent, there is a man and a slope of snow in unison…I become a part of this cosmic dimension.”23 And a professor at a major university said, that after he began to meditate, “I had an increased sensitivity, especially to nature–a sense of aliveness: I recall how I marveled as I looked at the world: everything was sharper, there was a greater luminosity, vibrant color. There was an increase in the feeling of love for my family and others. It was like a veil had been lifted off.” 22

From these quotes, we might conclude that this state of expanded awareness includes a reduction in self-referential thoughts, an increased sensitivity, an experience of oneness with nature, and a sense of connection and deep love for others. An experience of expanded awareness is usually associated with a shift from a materialist to a postmaterialist worldview.21 If the mind is capable of expanded awareness, the question arises concerning why our normal day-to-day conscious awareness is limited, thereby reinforcing a materialist worldview.

Why don't we experience the infinite creativity and expansiveness of the mind? Many scientists believe it is due to the neural filters that exist at almost every level of the brain, limiting the information that is normally received within our conscious awareness and promoting unconstrained self-referential thought.9,24, 25, 26 Thus, one source of a materialist worldview may be the existence of the neural filters within our brain which obscure an expanded nonlocal or unity awareness, instead creating the illusion that we are separate from others and have a transitory existence. As we discuss below, one of the neural filters, the Default Mode Network, which creates an ongoing egoic narrative, contributes to the needs of the individual being prioritized over those of other humans, animals and the planet. This plays a part in the emergence of a materialist worldview in individuals by creating a sense of separation and competition for limited resources. Reducing activity within these neural filters and increasing access to a wider awareness and a sense of increased interconnectedness with others would facilitate the use of our “intuitive intelligence” to begin to solve the environmental challenges facing us.23 Let's look more closely at the filters in our brain that have helped create conditions that favor a materialist view of the world.

The first filters in our brain are the sensory receptors themselves that drastically reduce and channel the vibratory information that exists all around us. One example is the pigments in the visual receptors, which only pick up three ranges of wavelengths out of the whole vibratory spectrum - blue, green and red-yellow. This same process of limiting the transmission of the full vibratory spectrum is true for all of the senses.27

Research has also shown that our normal waking state is highly influenced by the Mind Wandering Network or Default Mode Network (DMN) of the brain. It creates the narrative or stories we tell about ourselves and others throughout our day and leads to unconstrained self-referential thought and the prioritization of the needs of the self. The DMN is considered by many to be the source of the ego - the notion of self, and our identification with our thoughts, emotions and the roles we play in the world. Figure 1 shows an image of the activity of two nodes of the DMN during normal background awareness, indicating the high levels of activity, as our mind wanders from one thought to another. The DMN's main influence is to filter out a broader perceptual awareness, so that what we experience ends up being a small trickle of the information that is available from the universe. As the egoic narrative become dominant, the needs of the self are prioritized and the needs of others and the world recede to the background of awareness, thus contributing to a materialist perspective. During day-to-day living the DMN is very active.

In addition to the self-referential processing and filtering of the DMN, the left hemisphere networks of the brain also conceal a broader sense of awareness. These networks involve logic, analysis, and language processing, and are important conceptual filters. They reduce awareness of the holistic perceptions of the right brain networks such as creativity, imagination and holistic thinking. In fact, left-hemisphere language centers have been described as a filter of perception, focusing attention on particular aspects of the world, allowing us only to see its separate parts. This conceals our awareness of the whole and the unitive nature of reality. McGilchrist28 proposes that in our mechanistic age, the left brain is dominant, and thus more holistic perceptions of reality are diminished, again contributing to a materialist lens on reality.

There is another important filter – the posterior superior parietal lobule of the brain, that limits our sense of space and time, thus also limited a more expanded awareness. Dr. Andrew Newberg has shown that in experienced meditators, during deep meditation, in which they experienced an expansion of consciousness and unity awareness, there is a reduction in activity in this part of the brain. Newberg hypothesizes that a reduction of the sensory and cognitive inputs to this area during meditation is associated with the sense of going beyond space and time that is so often described during unity awareness.29

The last filters are the thalamus and the thalamo-cortical loop. Our Executive Attention system, in the prefrontal cortex would get overwhelmed with information if the thalamus passed along all sensory inputs. But, when we need to pay attention to one sense, for example, what is being heard, vs. what is seen, there is inhibition of the visual part of the thalamus so that the auditory signal becomes more prominent. Another way that the thalamus takes this filtering even further, is through reverberating thalamo-cortical internal circuitry in the brain that actually competes with sensory inputs for attentional focus.30 This is an internal loop from the cortex to the thalamus and back, which is also involved in self-referential thought. It can dominate all our perceptions, with ruminations on previous memories, and our verbal stories. This means that, under normal conditions, brain inputs from our self-referential thoughts can be more powerful than inputs from the world around us in creating our perception of reality. Once again this may contribute to thought-patterns associated with a materialist lens, as a dominance of self-referential thoughts promotes competition for limited resources, and lack of concern for the health of the environment.

In summary, our brains are hardwired to predispose us to a limited state of awareness of the universe around us. This is actually very important to survival in daily life, as without the filters we would be overwhelmed by sensory information. However, these filters contribute to a prioritization of self and unconstrained self-referential thinking. This creates a sense of separation from others and from the natural world; it also indicates that the brain is not hardwired for unity awareness.

Are there ways to reduce the effect of neural filters on perceptual processes so that we can experience expanded awareness and the sense of connectedness with others and the natural world? Research suggests there are a number of methods to reduce the dominance of neural filters on the lens of our perception. Some of these include spending time in nature, participating in the arts, the practice of meditation, the ingestion of psychoactive drugs and near-death experiences. All these experiences serve as different gateways to a particular realm or state that facilitates alterations to one's worldview, although some have more potency than others.

As there is considerable research on the last three gateways, we will focus on them in our discussion.

Many studies have shown that the practice of meditation decreases self-referential thought and increases our compassion and empathy for others, and the planet.31, 32, 33 Research by Judson Brewer and his colleagues from the Dept. of Psychiatry, Yale University School of Medicine, gives quantitative evidence as well. Using brain imaging (fMRI) the study showed significant reductions in two primary nodes of the DMN of experienced meditators vs novices during mystical states of meditation. Further studies showed reductions additionally in widespread areas of the brain. 31,32

Interestingly, research from brain imaging studies on the effects of meditation and psycho-active drugs such as psilocybin has shown that they have similar effects on the two primary nodes of the DMN. 31,32,34,35 The data indicate parallel deactivations in these nodes of the medial DMN during psilocybin ingestion and meditation. The decrease in the Default Mode Network activity directly corresponds with a heightened sense of unity awareness and ego-dissolution. This shows us that the brain truly becomes quite still as the self-referential narrative part of the brain is silenced. We propose that this stilling of our narrative mind actually allows subtler perceptions to come through awareness, which are normally filtered out, that is, the perceptions that mystical experiences are made of.

As near-death experiences (NDE) are reported as occurring predominantly at the time of cardiac arrest, it is not feasible to perform brain imaging during an NDE. However, EEG data indicate that the entire cortex, including the DMN, is no longer active at this time.26 And in reviews of the research on NDE aftereffects, long-lasting transformational effects were found, including an enhanced sense of unity awareness and of love and joy, thus indicating the same reduction in egoic identity as found for the transformative effects of meditation and psilocybin.36,37

Do meditation, psilocybin use and NDEs also cause an increase in compassion for others? In a study on meditation-related changes in compassion, Paul Condon and colleagues33 explored whether meditation training would make an individual more likely to come to the aid of a person in pain even when others were ignoring the person. Results showed that meditation caused a significant increase in compassion or empathy, compared to the control group, with 50% of meditators and only 15% of non-meditators acting to help. This was a large effect. This clearly shows that the practice of meditation results in a reduction in self-referential processes and a strengthening of the capacity to experience and express compassion. Similar effects have also been found in relation to both psilocybin use and NDEs. Pokorny et al38 have shown that psilocybin experiences enhance emotional empathy, while a study by Greyson39 indicates that the result of NDEs is an increase in the sense of compassion and love for others.

Scientists, like Dr. Richard Davidson at the University of Wisconsin, have also shown that this increase in compassion is associated with changes in brain structures, including increased activity in the dorsolateral prefrontal cortex and increased activity in the anterior cingulate cortex, associated with positive feelings and decreased activity in the amygdala, which is associated with distress. Davidson made an important point about this type of study. He said that it shows that, rather than becoming depressed by the suffering of others, people with these transformative effects develop a strong tendency to alleviate suffering and to wish others to be happy.40

Are there ways in which these practices can be applied to making a contribution to transforming cultural worldviews? Regarding the practice of meditation, a study by Claudia Orellana-Rios and her colleagues41 asked if these increases in the sense of compassion and connection with others can also be applied to the health care setting. In this study they trained a palliative care team in meditation conducted at their workplace. The quantitative data showed that the staff met or significantly exceeded their individual goals regarding health care, including experiencing increased peace in stressful situations. And the qualitative data showed much more about decreased rumination and increases in compassion and caring. One nurse said,

“I′m a person who really worries an awful lot…and I am now more capable to interrupt this at an earlier stage: to say...see what good you can do in this very moment, and how you can change the situation towards something positive.”41 (p. 13)

Another said: “I tried the suggestion made in the training to formulate these, I would call them intercessions for patients at home and this was great for me. I had the feeling, that in the moment I consciously went again into the problems of the people, wishing them well, [and] I was liberated. That was rather surprising for me because when I first heard about it, my first thought was: in my free time I don't want to deal with patient issues anymore, rather I want to distract myself. But then I noticed that distraction doesn't really work. It is like a covering up. By doing this, I didn't cover things up but handed them over.”41 (p. 13)

This shows the importance of meditation for these health care workers in reducing ruminative and distressing thoughts and fostering interpersonal interconnectedness and compassion.41

There are also examples of studies on applications of mindfulness meditation practices to early childhood education. In one from Richard Davidson's lab at the Univ. of Wisconsin,42 they conducted a 12-week mindfulness-based Kindness Curriculum which was taught in a public pre-school setting. The training focused on improving the brain's executive function, and the child's self-regulation, and prosocial behavior. The study showed significant increases in learning, health, and social/emotional abilities in the mindfulness/kindness curriculum group vs. a control group. One example was that the mindfulness group shared more of their resources over time, acted less selfishly, that is, more selflessly, than the control group. This again suggests a decrease in self-referential Default Mode Network activity as a result of the training. It also indicates there may be benefits in incorporating mindfulness-based training into an early education curriculum.

It is of interest that mindfulness practices have also been applied to increase collaborative efforts in the government/legislative setting. In the United Kingdom, legislators formed the Mindfulness All-Party Parliamentary Group (MAPP) to implement mindfulness into healthcare, education, workplace, and the criminal justice system. They have urged other policymakers to consider implementing mindfulness training, indicating its many benefits including increased employee engagement, increased collaboration, and more effective leadership.43 It is important to recognize that many of these benefits may be due to the increased sense of interconnection with others, which occurs with meditation practice. And in the United States, in the House of Representatives, Tim Ryan has been an advocate for mindfulness in the U.S. government. Representative Ryan has sponsored a bill to increase the holistic-medicine offerings of the Department of Veterans Affairs, secured a $1 million earmark for relaxation training for elementary school students in his district, and has written a book entitled A Mindful Nation.43

Finally, the Rights-of-Nature movement is bringing the lens of mindfulness to the environmental crisis. The Rights-of-Nature movement is working to increase awareness regarding the destruction of the natural environment and implementing laws to reverse this. In 2008, Ecuador became the first country in the world to formally recognize and implement the Rights of Nature. In 2017, advocates for four rivers (Whanganui River in New Zealand, the Rio Altrato in Colombia, and the Ganga and Yamuna rivers in India) sought and in some cases won legal rights for these rivers. The New Zealand Parliament appointed two guardians of the river, a representative of the Indigenous Māori people and a representative of the government, thus helping to reconcile two different worldviews.6

As of 2022, nature's rights laws exist in 29 countries43,44 including Canada,45 at least seven Tribal Nations in the U.S. and Canada, and over 60 cities and counties throughout the United States.46, 47, 48 Thus, within the context of the climate crisis, the Rights-of-Nature movement represents one legal avenue to raise awareness and help elevate the urgency of protecting biodiversity in the fight against climate change.6 These movements to protect the natural environment promote access to one of the key portals to unitive awareness, the opportunity to spend time in nature, itself.

Using this evidence as a foundation we can create a new narrative about humanity and how we relate to the world. We advocate going to the source of the issue (changing our awareness and understanding) to solve environmental problems and not only working at the periphery (e.g., suggesting legislation that may or may not be passed by voters and their governing bodies). What is the key to changing worldview to a postmaterialist perspective? We believe it is having a direct experience of expanded consciousness that decreases one's sense of isolation and increases the sense of interconnectedness with others. How do we facilitate this?

First we need to remember that worldviews are largely unconscious, and we need to become more aware of our society's worldviews and their effects on our behavior. One of the main barriers to overcome in making this shift is our current very solid materialist world view that is part of our Western science-oriented culture. This is a very challenging task. Here is what one scientist, Dr. Harold Puthoff,23 said about the challenge of making this shift when, initially as a skeptic, he began doing research on the existence of nonlocal aspects of consciousness and found that his subjects in his experiments at Stanford Research Institute could actually see things clearly in their own minds, that were thousands of miles away, as if they were present:

The evidence we had was rock hard. I saw that. But I also saw that it didn't eradicate my doubt. That made me see my doubts weren't the problem. On the contrary, the problem lay with my beliefs. I was having terrible trouble giving up my beliefs about how the world worked, even in the face of evidence that said my beliefs were wrong. It really brought home what any good scientist knows: doubts aren't what interfere with good science... It's easier to think there must be something wrong with your experiments. And that's ironic because it looks like humility, but it isn't. It's privileging your own personal beliefs above the evidence. That's not science, it's hubris.23

In her book Extraordinary Knowing, Mayer23 summarizes this and other barriers that face many scientists, reducing their ability to embrace a postmaterialist era. These barriers include, 1) being trained in a solid materialist belief system, which is the case for most scientists; 2) the fear of letting this life-long societally dominant belief go; 3) the fear that these experiences are illusions; 4) the fear of being considered mentally unbalanced by family, friends, colleagues; 5) the fear of ruining one's career, and 6) resistance and ridicule by those who have never had this type of experience.

How can we encourage these experiences of interconnection and remove the barriers to embracing a postmaterialist era? The research summarized earlier suggests that within the educational system, we can teach children, starting in early education, to quiet the mind.42 We can also train healthcare workers in mindfulness meditation,41 and offer training in mindfulness to a country's governing bodies. And, of course, we can preserve the natural environments that induce relaxation and stillness, and encourage workers to spend time there in stillness. All of these methods reduce self-referential thought processes that contribute to a sense of isolation and competition and increase a sense of inter-connectivity and thus a sense of responsibility toward the inclusive well-being of self, others and the planet.

In summary, changing the worldviews of both individuals and society is KEY to changing our attitudes, beliefs, and actions towards the environment. We cannot “save” the environment of this planet without changing the underlying worldview, from a materialist worldview related to humankind's right to exploit the environment, to a postmaterialist worldview of humankind's responsibility to protect the environment. These shifts in worldview may originally happen one person at a time as we learn the value of quieting the mind, which reduces unconstrained self-referential thought and expands our sense of interconnectedness – but at some point we believe that our dominant Western cultures will reach a tipping point in which we truly understand, value and put into practice the ancient attitudes toward ourselves and the planet that have endured in Indigenous communities since time immemorial and are being revitalized and refined today as a postmaterialist worldview. It is already beginning to happen not only in our individual lives, but in healthcare, in early child education and even in governmental organizations.