Inflammation is a protective response of a body, associated with the activation of immune system in a response to the varied etiology which intends to remove the causative agent and restores the normal tissue homeostasis. It is characterised by the pain, redness, swelling, warmness and loss of function which is mediated by increased vascular permeability, leukocyte infiltration and release of inflammatory mediators (Antonelli and Kushner, 2017). Acute inflammatory response is divided into early and late phases. In early phase, any damage to the blood vessels (either physical or chemical) results in the direct contact of blood components with the extravascular tissue activating platelets and starting blood coagulation process. The formation of a platelet plug provides temporary haemostasis which is reinforced by fibrin. High vascular permeability and fibrin matrix jointly facilitate the migration of the inflammatory cells including neutrophils, macrophages and T-lymphocytes around damaged tissue in a sequential manner. In the late phase, inflammatory cells remove the damaged tissue and initiate the formation of new tissue (Hart, 2002). A variety of mediators are involved in the acute inflammatory process including; arachidonic acid metabolites (prostanoids and leukotrienes), platelet activating factor, cytokines (interleukins, interferons, tumor necrosis factor and colony stimulating factors), histamine, serotonin, kinins, enzymes, reactive oxygen species, proteinases, transcription factors and complement proteins (Antonelli and Kushner, 2017; Hart, 2002; Medzhitov, 2008). Some of these inflammatory mediators such as the prostaglandins, histamine, serotonin and bradykinins are also involved in the perception of pain (Arome et al., 2014).

Normally acute inflammation is a balanced and well controlled phenomenon which persists for as long as the underlying cause of inflammation is addressed. If this response is dysregulated or fails to eliminate the etiological factors, it continues, becomes detrimental and persists with the involvement of new attributes leading to chronic inflammation, formation of lymphoid tissues, granulomas, scarring and fibrosis (Medzhitov, 2008; Sousa et al., 2013). Chronic inflammation is associated with many diseases including; rheumatoid arthritis, inflammatory bowel disease, psoriasis, multiple sclerosis, asthma, chronic obstructive pulmonary disease etc. (Sousa et al., 2013). Treatments for inflammation either inhibit or interfere with the production of inflammatory mediators (Sousa et al., 2013).

NSAIDs are accessible as over-the-counter medications and are extensively used by about 30 million individuals worldwide to counter the mild pain associated with inflammation (Conaghan, 2012; Nunes et al., 2020). Although the NSAIDs are generally considered as safe but their inappropriate use can result in the gastric ulcers, cardiotoxicity, nephrotoxicity and hepatic damage. Moreover, they have a significant risk of drug interactions, raising concerns about their use as analgesic agents (Brennan et al., 2021). Aspirin was among the first NSAID used. Aspirin was isolated from willow bark which had been used for treating fever and inflammation for 3500 years (Mahesh et al., 2021). Several other phytochemicals like opioids from Papaver somniferum, capsaicin from Capsicum and cannabinoids from Cannabis sativa, have been used as potent analgesic and anti-inflammatory agents (Rehab Fawzy, 2017).

Plants are reservoirs of secondary metabolites which possess a wide range of biological activities. Prehistoric use of plants for medicinal purposes had evolved through observation, documentation and experimentation that contributed greatly in the discovery of modern drugs. Several plants have anti-inflammatory, analgesic, antipyretic, anti-microbial, wound healing and antioxidant activities which complement each other and augment the desired outcomes against inflammation (Nunes et al., 2020). Cenchrus ciliaris L. is native to Asia and tropical Africa and belongs to family Poaceae. It is adapted to harsh environmental conditions in dry habitat and commonly known as ‘Dhaman’ or ‘Buffel’ grass (Goel et al., 2011). C. ciliaris L. is widely distributed in Pakistan, and considered as an important perennial grass specie of the Cholistan desert (Ahmed et al., 2014; Ashraf et al., 2013). It has a high nutritional value due to the presence of high lipids, fiber, protein, starch, sugars (both reducing and non-reducing), sodium, potassium and nitrogen contents (Ashraf et al., 2013). Local people consume seeds to make flour and bread (Ahmad et al., 2014). Phytochemical analysis of C. ciliaris has revealed the presence of anthraquinones, alkaloids, tannins, flavonoids, phenols, anthocyanin, carbohydrates/glycosides, coumarin, sterols/triterpenes, saponins and protein/amino acids (Alothman et al., 2018; Fatima et al., 2019, 2022). Alcoholic extract of C. ciliaris is considered safe for human consumption up to the dose of 5 g/kg and have genoprotective effect against the oxidative stress (Alothman et al., 2018; Fatima et al., 2022).

In Pakistan and Southern Africa, extracts of C. ciliaris are traditionally used for treating dysmenorrhea, body pain, lactogogue, kidney stones, urinary tract infections, tumors, sores and wounds (Ahmed et al., 2014; Ashraf et al., 2013; Khan et al., 2021; Light et al., 2002; Lindsey et al., 1999). These traditional uses suggest possible anti-inflammatory and analgesic activities. In comparison to other plant species, a few pharmacological studies have been performed on C. ciliaris regardless of its multiple uses in traditional medicine. In fact no comprehensive study on anti-inflammatory and analgesic activity of C. ciliaris has been performed previously. Therefore, the purpose of this study was to evaluate the anti-inflammatory (both in-vitro and in-vivo), anti-nociceptive and anti-pyretic activity of C. ciliaris.