Ramineni A, Roberts EA, Vora M, Mahboobi SK, Nozari A. Anesthesia considerations in neurological emergencies. Neurol Clin. 2021;39(2):319–32.

Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

Li Z, Liu J, Liang H. Biophysical model: a promising method in the study of the mechanism of propofol: a narrative review. Computational intelligence and neuroscience. United States: Hindawi Pub Corp p; 2022. p. 8202869.

Google Scholar 

Schizodimos T, Soulountsi V, Iasonidou C, Kapravelos N. An overview of management of intracranial hypertension in the intensive care unit. J Anesth. 2020;34(5):741–57.

Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

• Wu M, Yin X, Chen M, Liu Y, Zhang X, Li T, et al. Effects of propofol on intracranial pressure and prognosis in patients with severe brain diseases undergoing endotracheal suctioning. BMC Neurol. 2020;20(1):394. This prospective study demonstrated the ability of propofol premedication to reduce increases in ICP due to endotracheal suctioning.

Article  CAS  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

Preethi J, Bidkar PU, Cherian A, Dey A, Srinivasan S, Adinarayanan S, et al. Comparison of total intravenous anesthesia vs inhalational anesthesia on brain relaxation, intracranial pressure, and hemodynamics in patients with acute subdural hematoma undergoing emergency craniotomy: a randomized control trial. Eur J Trauma Emerg Surg. 2021;47(3):831–7.

Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

Vimala S, Arulvelan A, Chandy VG. Comparison of the effects of propofol and sevoflurane induced burst suppression on cerebral blood flow and oxygenation: a prospective, randomised, double-blinded study. World Neurosurg. 2020;135:e427–34.

Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

Jeffcote T,  Weir T,  Anstey J, Mcnamara R,  Bellomo R, Udy A. The impact of sedative choice on intracranial and systemic physiology in moderate to severe traumatic brain injury: a scoping review. J Neurosurg Anesthesiol. 2022.

Löwhagen Hendén P, Rentzos A, Karlsson JE, Rosengren L, Leiram B, Sundeman H, et al. General anesthesia versus conscious sedation for endovascular treatment of acute ischemic stroke: the AnStroke trial (anesthesia during stroke). Stroke. 2017;48(6):1601–7.

Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

Simonsen CZ, Yoo AJ, Sørensen LH, Juul N, Johnsen SP, Andersen G, et al. Effect of general anesthesia and conscious sedation during endovascular therapy on infarct growth and clinical outcomes in acute ischemic stroke: a randomized clinical trial. JAMA Neurol. 2018;75(4):470–7.

Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

Schönenberger S, Hendén PL, Simonsen CZ, Uhlmann L, Klose C, Pfaff JAR, et al. Association of general anesthesia vs procedural sedation with functional outcome among patients with acute ischemic stroke undergoing thrombectomy: a systematic review and meta-analysis. JAMA. 2019;322(13):1283–93.

Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

Pertzov B, Krasulya B, Azem K, Shostak Y, Izhakian S, Rosengarten D, Kharchenko S,Kramer MR. Dexmedetomidine versus propofol sedation in flexible bronchoscopy: a randomized controlled trial. BMC Pulm Med. 2022;22(1):87. 

Liu X, Li Y, Kang L, Wang Q. Recent advances in the clinical value and potential of dexmedetomidine. J Inflamm Res. 2021;14:7507.

Article  CAS  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

Kallioinen M, Posti JP, Rahi M, Sharma D, Katila A, Grönlund J, et al. Cerebral autoregulation after aneurysmal subarachnoid haemorrhage. A preliminary study comparing dexmedetomidine to propofol and/or midazolam. Acta anaesthesiologica Scandinavica. England: Wiley-Blackwell; 2020. p. 1278–86.

Google Scholar 

Bilodeau V, Saavedra-Mitjans M, Frenette AJ, et al. Safety of dexmedetomidine for thecontrol of agitation in critically ill traumatic brain injury patients: a descriptive study. J Clin Pharm Ther. 2021;46(4):1020–6.

Khallaf M, Thabet AM, Ali M, Sharkawy E, Abdel-rehim S. The effect of dexmedetomidine versus propofol in traumatic brain injury: evaluation of some hemodynamic and intracranial pressure changes. Egypt J Neurosurg. 2019;34(1):17.

Article  Google Scholar 

James ML, Olson DM, Graffagnino C. A pilot study of cerebral and haemodynamic physiological changes during sedation with dexmedetomidine or propofol in patients with acute brain injury. Anaesth Intensive Care. 2012;40(6):949–57.

Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

Oddo M, Crippa IA, Mehta S, Menon D, Payen JF, Taccone FS, et al. Optimizing sedation in patients with acute brain injury. Crit Care. 2016;20(1):128.

Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

Schomer KJ, Sebat CM, Adams JY, Duby JJ, Shahlaie K, Louie EL. Dexmedetomidine for refractory intracranial hypertension. J Intensive Care Med. 2019;34(1):62–6.

Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

Heybati K, Zhou F, Ali S, Deng J, Mohananey D, Villablanca P, et al. Outcomes of dexmedetomidine versus propofol sedation in critically ill adults requiring mechanical ventilation: a systematic review and meta-analysis of randomised controlled trials. British Journal of Anaesthesia. 2022;129(4);515–26.

Abowali HA, Paganini M, Enten G, Elbadawi A, Camporesi EM. Critical review and meta-analysis of postoperative sedation after adult cardiac surgery: dexmedetomidine versus propofol. J Cardiothorac Vasc Anesth. 2021;35(4):1134–42.

Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

Xiao Z, He T, Jiang X, Xie F, Xia L, Zhou H. Effect of dexmedetomidine and propofol sedation on the prognosis of children with severe respiratory failure: a systematic review and meta-analysis. Transl Pediatr. 2022;11(2):260–9.

Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

Glaess SS, Attridge RL, Christina GG. Clonidine as a strategy for discontinuing dexmedetomidine sedation in critically ill patients: a narrative review. Am J Health Syst Pharm. 2020;77(7):515–22.

Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

Kienitz R, Kay L, Beuchat I, Gelhard S, von Brauchitsch S, Mann C, et al. Benzodiazepines in the management of seizures and status epilepticus: a review of routes of delivery, pharmacokinetics, efficacy, and tolerability. CNS Drugs. 2022;36(9):951–75.

Article  CAS  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

Weiss B, Hilfrich D, Vorderwülbecke G, Heinrich M, Grunow JJ, Paul N, et al. Outcomes in critically ill patients sedated with intravenous lormetazepam or midazolam: a retrospective cohort study. J Clin Med. 2021;10(18):4091.

Article  CAS  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

George S, Mathew J. Midazolam is effective in controlling intracranial pressure in severe traumatic brain injury. CHRISMED J Health Res. 2019;6(4):242–7.

Article  Google Scholar 

Garcia R, Salluh JIF, Andrade TR, Farah D, da Silva PSL, Bastos DF, et al. A systematic review and meta-analysis of propofol versus midazolam sedation in adult intensive care (ICU) patients. J Crit Care. 2021;64:91–9.

Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

Pandharipande PP, Pun BT, Herr DL, Maze M, Girard TD, Miller RR, et al. Effect of sedation with dexmedetomidine vs lorazepam on acute brain dysfunction in mechanically ventilated patients: the MENDS randomized controlled trial. JAMA. 2007;298(22):2644–53.

Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

Zanza C, Piccolella F, Racca F, Romenskaya T, Longhitano Y, Franceschi F, et al. Ketamine in acute brain injury: current opinion following cerebral circulation and electrical activity. Healthcare (Basel). 2022;10(3):566.

Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

Zeiler FA, Teitelbaum J, West M, Gillman LM. The ketamine effect on intracranial pressure in nontraumatic neurological illness. J Crit Care. 2014;29(6):1096–106.

Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

Gregers MCT, Mikkelsen S, Lindvig KP, Brochner AC. Ketamine as an anesthetic for patients with acute brain injury: a systematic review. Neurocrit Care. 2020;33(1):273–82.

Article  CAS  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

Pribish A, Wood N, Kalava A. A review of nonanesthetic uses of ketamine. Anesthesiol Res Pract. 2020;2020:5798285.

PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

Andolfatto G, Abu-Laban RB, Zed PJ, Staniforth SM, Stackhouse S, Moadebi S, et al. Ketamine-propofol combination (ketofol) versus propofol alone for emergency department procedural sedation and analgesia: a randomized double-blind trial. Ann Emerg Med. 2012;59(6):504-12.e1-2.

Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

Walravens S, Buylaert W, Steen E, De Paepe P. Implementation of a protocol using ketamine-propofol (‘ketofol’) in a 1 to 4 ratio for procedural sedation in adults at a university hospital emergency department - report on safety and effectiveness. Acta Clin Belg. 2021;76(5):359–64.

Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

Ferguson I, Bell A, Treston G, New L, Ding M, Holdgate A. Propofol or ketofol for procedural sedation and analgesia in emergency medicine-the POKER study: a randomized double-blind clinical trial. Ann Emerg Med. 2016;68(5):574-82 e1.

Article  Google Scholar 

Murala S, Yelam A, Ismail MM, Bollu PCGABA. In: Bollu PC, editor. Neurochemistry in clinical practice. Cham: Springer International Publishing; 2022. p. 73–89.

Chapter  Google Scholar 

Mathur M, Malik MT. Benzodiazepines and barbiturates. In: Kamat PP, Berkenbosch JW, editors. Sedation and analgesia for the pediatric intensivist: a clinical guide. Cham: Springer International Publishing; 2021. p. 401–10.

Chapter  Google Scholar 

Bernstein JE, Ghanchi H, Kashyap S, Podkovik S, Miulli DE, Wacker MR, et al. Pentobarbital coma with therapeutic hypothermia for treatment of refractory intracranial hypertension in traumatic brain injury patients: a single institution experience. Cureus. 2020;12(9): e10591.

PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

Aisiku, IP. Chapter 387: Critical care management of traumatic brain injury. Youmansand Winn neurological surgery. Eighth ed. Philadelphia, PA: Elsevier, Inc.; 2023;3003–26.

Navarro JC, Kofke WA. Chapter 24: Perioperative management of acute centralnervous system injury. Perioperative Medicine. Second ed. 2022;355–409.

Yamakawa Y, Morioka M, Negoto T, Orito K, Yoshitomi M, Nakamura Y, et al. A novel step-down infusion method of barbiturate therapy: its safety and effectiveness for intracranial pressure control. Pharmacol Res Perspect. 2021;9(2): e00719.

Article  CAS  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

Severgnini P, Pelosi P, Contino E, Serafinelli E, Novario R, Chiaranda M. Accuracy of critical care pain observation tool and behavioral pain scale to assess pain in critically ill conscious and unconscious patients: prospective, observational study. J Intensive Care. 2016;4:68.

Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

• de Haro C, Magrans R, Lopez-Aguilar J, Montanya J, Lena E, Subira C, et al. Effects of sedatives and opioids on trigger and cycling asynchronies throughout mechanical ventilation: an observational study in a large dataset from critically ill patients. Crit Care. 2019;23(1):245. This prospective multi-center trial utilized a unique breath-to-breath assessment of the effects of opiates on ventilator synchrony.

Article  PubMed  PubMed Central