Socio-demographic data

Gathering socio-demographic data is critical in ethno-ichthyological research because it plays a vital role in analyzing and characterizing factors related to therapeutic and cultural applications of fish species. Educated people of the study region were less familiar with the usage of different fish species to cure common ailments because of their greater exposure to modernity. During the fieldwork, it was recorded that un-educated people (N = 29) have more ethnomedicinal knowledge as compared to educated people. Un-educated people use fish products commonly. Because they prefer to treat themselves rather than seek advice from local health practitioners or doctors. Similar findings were found in Ethiopia [44, 45] and Thailand [46]. We noted that rural people had less knowledge about the conservation and sustainable use of species as compared to urban ones. Gathering socio-demographic data on respondents (gender, age, educational level, occupation, and ethnicity) is particularly beneficial in social research as this element plays a significant role in analyzing and interpreting the responses received [47].

Local nomenclature

Local names of fauna are generally depending on associations, ecology, habitat, morphology, and relation of species with humans. Vernacular names of six species included the same suffix “carp” (Ctenopharyngodon idella (grass carp), Hypophthalmichthys molitrix (silver carp), Labeo boggut (minor carp), Cirrhinus reba (reba carp), Cirrhinus mrigala (mrigal carp), Cyprinus carpio (common carp)). Similarly, five species had the suffix “machhali,” viz. Oreochromis niloticus (tilapia/chira machhli), Mastacembelus armatus (baam machhali), Labeo calbasu and Aspidoparia morar (dahi machhli), and Securicula gora (karail machhali). The English as well as vernacular names of Hypophthalmichthys molitrix was the same ("silver carp”), C. idella “grass carp,” Labeo boggut “minor carp,” Cirrhinus reba “reba carp” Cirrhinus mrigala “mrigal carp,” Cyprinus carpio “common carp.” The name of the four species reflected their color: C. idella has grass color, thus was called “grass carp” and H. molitrix has silver color and thus called “silver carp” Gonialosa manmina has golden color and called “golden sarru,” while Labeo gonius has black color and was called “kala sarru.” On the other hand, some fishes were locally classified based on structure, viz. Oreochromis niloticus (tilapia/chira machhli) appears like a house sparrow and was called “chira machhli” (chira meaning house sparrow), and the shape of “Channa punctata” is identical to an arm muscle so this species was known as “dola” (mean is muscle), “Channa striata” and “Channa marulius” appear just like the “sole of shoes” and were called “sole” (Additional file 1: Table S1).

Cultural values of fish

Fish were not only utilized in the therapy of diseases but also other purposes, e.g., fish for food or source of recreation, fish oil as a dietary supplement, fish as a biological control agent, or reference to fish in folklore, mythology, religion, spirituality, art, literature, film, and popular culture [10, 17, 48,49,50]. The local people of the study area also utilized meat of fish species collected from the Indus River of southern Punjab, Pakistan (Fig. 8). Medicinal and cultural purposes can be addressed by ecological factors such as resource availability, species status in the food chain, or the relevance of these species in the economy and social relationships within the community.

Fig. 8

Cultural uses of fishes of the study area, FC (frequency of citation), MD (medicinal), STS (superstitious), CC (commercial) TL (tool), ET (entertainment), and FD (food), codes are present in Additional file 1: Table S1. Green and purple colors indicate increased and decreased values of informants, respectively

Fish as foods

Out of 43 fishes fauna, only Gudusia chapra (palla), Gonialosa manmina (golden sarru), Puntius sophore (gulfam), Puntius conchonius (gulfam), Puntius ticto (khirni), Puntius terio (khirni), Puntius chola (khirni), Salmophasia bacaila (popal), Salmophasia punjabensis (popal), Osteobrama cotio (chan makhni), Chela cachius (chan makhni), and Channa striata (soul) were not utilized in food of local people, while all other fishes were consumed as a food (Fig. 8). Muslims make up the majority of South Punjab's population, which eats fish often. Because fish and seafood are notably significant in Islamic traditions, especially when halal is used as a dietary criterion. Fish and other aquatic creatures do not have to be slaughtered religiously, albeit the technique employed must be humane, and no blessing must be offered. A fish that dies naturally and is floating or laying on the surface of the sea is still halal if it shows no evidence of decomposition or decay. People consume fish in a variety of ways such as smoked fish, barbeque fish, curry fish, and fried fish. For example, the inhabitants of Kashmir liked to eat barbequed fish in the evening hours [50]. They also used different traditional preservation techniques for fish food conservation e.g., smoking, pickling, and sun drying.

Wallago attu is a large freshwater catfish found in Pakistan that is popular as a food source in southern Punjab. The quick growth and good nutritional content of this great food fish prompted research into its aquaculture potential [51]. Catfish, for example, is a popular food in the fishing community, indicating a complex interaction of symbolic and cultural aspects, as well as materialistic or practical factors, such as the region's availability of this resource [52]. Hasan, Ahmad [53] reported that some fishes from the river Swat, Pakistan, such as Racoma labiata, Schizothorax plagiostomus, Mastacembelus armatus, Tor macrolepis, Cyprinus carpio and trout species are consumed as food hence deemed more economically important.

Fisheries generally play an important role in the global provision of food [54], directly accounting for at least 15% of the animal protein consumed by humans and indirectly supporting food production through aquaculture and livestock industries [55]. Meat and fish have been the primary source of protein for many human cultures throughout history [56]. There is significant potential for fisheries development in Pakistan, and substantial fish resources may be utilized as an essential source of high-quality protein meals. Increased fish production and consumption would boost the protein composition of people's diets [57]. According to the Tacon and Metian [58], over 75% of global fish production in 2002 is used directly for human consumption, and consumption of fresh fish is growing at the expense of other forms of fish products (e.g., canned fish).

Superstitious stories about fish

According to the local people, if one has body parts of the giant river catfish (Sperata sarwari) at home, black magic will not affect any person. In Latin American literature, we find numerous examples of animals giving “signs” of future happenings of a social nature, or animals known as being “of ill omen” [59] as is the case of black cats [60]. In his book on Mapuche secrets and legends, Calvo [61] wrote that eating fish would bring bad luck. Contrastingly, watching fish in an aquarium can reduce stress [62] and anxiety [63], improve physical mobility, reduce blood pressure in patients with cardiac disease [64], and confer physical benefits such as weight gain to older persons with dementia [65]. According to Alves and Rosa [66], the inhabitants of Brazil used tarpon fish scales to repulse evil eye, eliminate harassing spirits, block harmful influence, aphrodisiac, and treat asthma. In another research, Djidohokpin, Sossoukpè [52] African cryptic snakehead fish is frequently employed as a magical weapon by traditional healers to keep women from committing adultery. According to Neuenschwander and Sinsin [67], the magical characteristics of some sorts of fish can operate as an aphrodisiac.

Commercial use

Twenty-seven species of fishes were utilized for commercial purposes, i.e., Aspidoparia morar, Bagarius bagarius, Channa marulius, C. punctata, Clupisoma garua, Crossocheilus diplochilus, Ctenopharyngodon idella, Cyprinus carpio, Eutropiichthys vacha, Hypophthalmichthys molitrix, Labeo boggut, L. calbasu, L. dyocheilus, L. gonius, L. rohita, Macrognathus pancalus, Mastacembelus armatus, Notopterus notopterus, Ompok bimaculatus, O. pabda, Oreochromis niloticus, Puntius punjabensis, Rita rita, Securicula gora, Sperata seenghala, Systomus sarana, and Wallago attu (Fig. 8). For commercial purposes, the local people of the study area captured fish and trade to fulfill socioeconomic needs. Many fish species are traded and sold as curiosities (curios) and souvenirs around the world, either dried or preserved, whole or in part [68]. The inhabitants of the area used fish skin to create several consumer products including wallets, belts, and gloves. Taxidermy fish were also used as attractions in a variety of businesses. In Chinese tradition, ground fish bones are used to make toothpaste [69]. According to Blades [70], several types of Chinese drums (ku) are made from long pieces of bamboo or wood with dried fish skin stretched over one end.

Tools

According to local people of southern Punjab, all fingerlings of fish species (N = 43, Fig. 8) were also utilized as a tool to capture other fish when their sizes are very small [71]. Local inhabitants used fish flesh as bait for varieties of fish species from rivers, as also reported earlier by Altaf, Abbasi [10]. Additionally, bait fish are tiny fish that fishermen catch and use as baits to catch larger predatory fish, particularly game fish [52]. Typically, baitfish species are ones that are widespread and reproduce quickly, making them simple to capture and in plentiful supply. Fish parts have also been used in many ways to construct tools and weapons in different cultures. For example, dried Pirarucu tongues are traditionally used as a grater for mandioca root to produce cassava flour in many Amazon villages [69]. In Australian aboriginal culture, Kaiya was composed of an Acacia shaft mounted with a cluster of fish tail spines and used in initiation ceremonies, for fighting and punishment, such as spearing the leg of those who disobeyed tribal laws [72].

Entertainment

All 43 species found were utilized for entertainment and enjoyment (Additional file 1: Table S1). Most species are employed in therapeutic medicine to heal ailments or for mysterious rituals; therefore, catching them is great entertainment and enjoyment for the fisherman. Local people liked fishing in the area for recreation and enjoyment. Recreational fishing contests are a relatively new idea in which fishermen compete for rewards based on the total weightage of fish caught in a specific period of time. Competitive sport fishing has grown in popularity over the past several decades [73, 74]. Hasan, Ahmad [53] observed that several of the tiny-sized fishes from the Swat River in Pakistan, such as Puntius, Barilius, Schistura, and Colisa, are attractive ornamental species that are kept alive in aquaria and have a high economic value. If properly marketed, these fish may minimize the national spending on ornamental fish imports.

Ethnomedicinal uses of fishes

South Punjab residents had detailed information about cultural as well as folklore medicinal uses of fish species. A total of 26 fish species were utilized to treat a wide variety of illnesses such as asthma, body weakness, burn, chicken pox, cold, cough, eyesight, hepatitis, impotency, joint pain, night blindness, skin burn, spleen treatment, stomach infection, and weakness (Table 1 and Fig. 9).

Fig. 9

Body parts’ uses against diseases in the study area

Body part(s) utilized

The meat was the most regularly consumed part and was utilized in 19 treatment recipes, followed by oil, brain, and skin, utilized in 10, 7, 13 recipes, respectively (Fig. 9).

During the present study, fish meat was utilized to cure eyesight, cough, cold, joint pain, backbone pain, night blindness, impotency, weakness, skin burn, chicken pox, and hepatitis. The oil of fish was utilized to cure body weakness, chicken pox, skin burn, joint pain, and impotency. Whole fishes were utilized to cure eyesight, cough, cold, night blindness, joint pain, backbone pain, impotency, body weakness and skin burn, while the skin only served to cure body weakness, chicken pox, skin burn, joint pain, and impotency (Table 1).

Diseases treated

People used Ctenopharyngodon idella for the healing of cough, cold, joint, eyes problems, and backbone pain (Fig. 10), while previous studies documented this species for treating the central nervous system (CNS) disease, joint pain, and impotency [75, 76]. In another research, Cyprinus carpio was utilized for the healing of eyesight, cough, cold, joint and backbone problems, and the same species has been known to treat lumbago, memory, central nervous system disease, erysipelas, sexual problems, energy, overweight problems as well as cold [49, 76]. Likewise, Labeo rohita was utilized for the healing of eyesight, cough, cold, joint and backbone pain, and previously recorded to treat weakness, rheumatic problems, urine problems, stomachache, memory, energy, cold and sexual problems [76,77,78,79].

Fig. 10

Fish species’ distribution according to the usage of different parts in southern Punjab Province, Pakistan

Channa marulius was used for cough and impotency, while it has been reported to treat memory, sexual issues, energy, rheumatic, cold, and hemoglobin [20, 77, 78, 80]. Channa punctata was utilized for the healing of impotency and weakness and the same species was documented previously to treat enhanced energy, pain, sexual issues, and joint problems [76, 78, 81, 82]. Oreochromis niloticus is used for healing body weakness, chicken pox, and skin burns and was used in other regions for eyesight, scorpion bites, abscesses, carbuncle, memory, sexual problems, and energy (44, 65).

Rita rita was used for the healing of skin burns, and has been known to cure joint problems, sexual problems, treat cold, joint pain and energy [76, 77]. Bagarius bagarius was utilized to cure joint issues and impotency (Table 1), while the same species was previously reported to treat body burns, body pain, stomach pain [78, 83]. Wallago attu, in the study region preferred for the healing of joint problems, was also mentioned in the literature for the same purpose, as well as piles, memory disorders, dysentery, liver and sexual problems, and cold [76, 84,85,86]. Notopterus notopterus was utilized for the healing of joint problems, in contrast to earlier reported uses to cure pain and chicken pox [87, 88].

The most popular species with RPL = 1.0, i.e., Hypophthalmichthys molitrix, Mastacembelus armatus, Sperata seenghala, Eutropiichthys vacha, Clupisoma garua, Labeo dyocheilus, Labeo boggut, Systomus sarana, Puntius punjabensis, Crossocheilus diplochilus, Labeo gonius, Aspidoparia morar, Mastacembelus armatus, Ompok bimaculatus, and Ompok pabda, were utilized to treat asthma, backbone pain, blindness, chicken pox, cold, cough, eyesight, hepatitis, impotency, joint pain, night, spleen healing, and stomach infection.

Similarity index

Twenty-six species overall were utilized in traditional medicine (Table 1). Out of this, only one species (Clupisoma garua, garua bachcha) reached a similarity index of one. Its meat, skin, and oil were utilized to treat joint pain. Similar discriptions were reported by Altaf, Abbasi [10]. Hypophthalmichthys molitrix (silver carp) had a similarity index of 0.83 and was utilized to treat cold, night blindness, eye problems, cough, joint and backbone pain, while previous studies reported its use for fever, eyesight, cough, cold, and backbone pain [10, 17]. Ctenopharyngodon idella (grass carp) had 0.25 similarity and was used to treat eyesight, cough, cold, joint and backbone pain. Earlier studies had documented its use for sexual power, joint pain, backbone pain, enhance memory, energy and cold [10, 75, 76]. Wallago attu (wallago catfish) showed a similarity of 0.12 and was used to treat joint pain., very different from previous research that mentioned its use as liver tonic, for piles, dysentery, memory, liver, cold, sexual problems, and joint problems [76, 84,85,86]. Cyprinus carpio (common carp) had a 0.08 similarity index and served for eye problems, cough, cold, night blindness, joint issues, backbone pain, before the species was already known for increasing sexual power, treat overweight, lumbago, erysipelas, memory, energy, cold, and central nervous system disease [49, 76]. Labeo rohita (rohu) had a similarity of 0.07 and was used to treat eyesight, cough, cold, joint and backbone pain, while previously it was reported as remedy for weakness, rheumatic pain, cold, urine problem, and stomachache, enhancing memory, energy, and sexual power [17, 76,77,78,79].

Twenty species had a “zero” similarity index, and of the medicinally used species eight (i.e., Channa marulius, Channa punctata, Oreochromis niloticus, Rita rita, Bagarius bagarius, Mastacembelus armatus, Eutropiichthys vacha and Notopterus notopterus) had “0” similarity. These species were known for their use for central nervous system disease, abscesses, appetite, blood purification, body pain, carbuncle, chicken pox, cold, energy, enhance memory, hemoglobin, joint pain, malaria, body pain, rheumatic pain, scorpion bite, sex power, stomach pain, vision, and weakness [10, 17, 19, 20, 49, 76,77,78, 80,81,82,