Herpich F, Rincon F. Management of acute ischemic stroke. Crit Care Med. 2020;48:1654–63.

Article  Google Scholar 

Kim JT, Fonarow GC, Smith EE, et al. Treatment With tissue plasminogen activator in the golden hour and the shape of the 4.5-hour time-benefit curve in the National United States get with the guidelines-stroke population. Circulation. 2017;135:128–39.

Article  Google Scholar 

Sandset EC, Anderson CS, Bath PM, et al. European Stroke Organisation (ESO) guidelines on blood pressure management in acute ischaemic stroke and intracerebral haemorrhage. Eur Stroke J. 2021;6:XLVIII–LXXXIX.

Article  Google Scholar 

Berkhemer OA, Fransen PS, Beumer D, et al. A randomized trial of intraarterial treatment for acute ischemic stroke. N Engl J Med. 2015;372:11–20.

Article  Google Scholar 

Goyal M, Menon BK, van Zwam WH, et al. Endovascular thrombectomy after large-vessel ischaemic stroke: a meta-analysis of individual patient data from five randomised trials. The Lancet. 2016;387:1723–31.

Article  Google Scholar 

National Institute of Neurological Disorders and Stroke rt-PA Stroke Study Group. Tissue plasminogen activator for acute ischemic stroke. N Engl J Med. 1995;333:1581–8.

Article  Google Scholar 

Powers WJ, Rabinstein AA, Ackerson T, et al. Guidelines for the early management of patients with acute ischemic stroke: 2019 update to the 2018 guidelines for the early management of acute ischemic stroke: a guideline for healthcare professionals from the American Heart Association/American Stroke Association. Stroke. 2019;50:e344–418.

Article  Google Scholar 

Behrndtz A, Johnsen SP, Valentin JB, et al. TRIAGE-STROKE: treatment strategy in acute larGE vessel occlusion: prioritize IV or endovascular treatment—a randomized trial. Int J Stroke: Off J Int Stroke Soc. 2020;15:103–8.

Article  Google Scholar 

Abilleira S, Perez de la Ossa N, Jimenez X, et al. Transfer to the local stroke center versus direct transfer to endovascular center of acute stroke patients with suspected large vessel occlusion in the Catalan territory (RACECAT): study protocol of a cluster randomized within a cohort trial. Int J Stroke: Off J Int Stroke Soc. 2019;14:734–44.

Article  Google Scholar 

Venema E, Groot AE, Lingsma HF, et al. Effect of interhospital transfer on endovascular treatment for acute ischemic stroke. Stroke. 2019;50:923–30.

Article  Google Scholar 

Zhelev Z, Walker G, Henschke N, Fridhandler J, Yip S. Prehospital stroke scales as screening tools for early identification of stroke and transient ischemic attack. Cochrane Database Syst Rev. 2019;4:Cd011427.

Google Scholar 

Duvekot MHC, Venema E, Rozeman AD, et al. Comparison of eight prehospital stroke scales to detect intracranial large-vessel occlusion in suspected stroke (PRESTO): a prospective observational study. Lancet Neurol. 2021;20:213–21.

Article  Google Scholar 

Nguyen TTM, van den Wijngaard IR, Bosch J, et al. Comparison of prehospital scales for predicting large anterior vessel occlusion in the ambulance setting. JAMA Neurol. 2021;78:157–64.

Article  Google Scholar 

Gude MF, Blauenfeldt RA, Behrndtz AB, et al. The Prehospital Stroke Score and telephone conference: a prospective validation. Acta Neurol Scand. 2022. https://doi.org/10.1111/ane.13580.

Article  Google Scholar 

Eng LF. Glial fibrillary acidic protein (GFAP): the major protein of glial intermediate filaments in differentiated astrocytes. J Neuroimmunol. 1985;8:203–14.

Article  Google Scholar 

Brunkhorst R, Pfeilschifter W, Foerch C. Astroglial proteins as diagnostic markers of acute intracerebral hemorrhage-pathophysiological background and clinical findings. Transl Stroke Res. 2010;1:246–51.

Article  Google Scholar 

Dvorak F, Haberer I, Sitzer M, Foerch C. Characterisation of the diagnostic window of serum glial fibrillary acidic protein for the differentiation of intracerebral haemorrhage and ischaemic stroke. Cerebrovasc Dis. 2009;27:37–41.

Article  Google Scholar 

Foerch C, Niessner M, Back T, et al. Diagnostic accuracy of plasma glial fibrillary acidic protein for differentiating intracerebral hemorrhage and cerebral ischemia in patients with symptoms of acute stroke. Clin Chem. 2012;58:237–45.

Article  Google Scholar 

Katsanos AH, Makris K, Stefani D, et al. Plasma glial fibrillary acidic protein in the differential diagnosis of intracerebral hemorrhage. Stroke. 2017;48:2586–8.

Article  Google Scholar 

Xiong L, Yang Y, Zhang M, Xu W. The use of serum glial fibrillary acidic protein test as a promising tool for intracerebral hemorrhage diagnosis in Chinese patients and prediction of the short-term functional outcomes. Neurol Sci. 2015;36:2081–7.

Article  Google Scholar 

Wunderlich MT, Wallesch CW, Goertler M. Release of glial fibrillary acidic protein is related to the neurovascular status in acute ischemic stroke. Eur J Neurol. 2006;13:1118–23.

Article  Google Scholar 

Rozanski M, Waldschmidt C, Kunz A, et al. Glial fibrillary acidic protein for prehospital diagnosis of intracerebral hemorrhage. Cerebrovasc Dis. 2017;43:76–81.

Article  Google Scholar 

Luger S, Witsch J, Dietz A, et al. Glial fibrillary acidic protein serum levels distinguish between intracerebral hemorrhage and cerebral ischemia in the early phase of stroke. Clin Chem. 2017;63:377–85.

Article  Google Scholar 

Fischer SK, Joyce A, Spengler M, et al. Emerging technologies to increase ligand binding assay sensitivity. AAPS J. 2015;17:93–101.

Article  Google Scholar 

Bustamante A, Penalba A, Orset C, et al. Blood biomarkers to differentiate ischemic and hemorrhagic strokes might allow prehospital thrombolysis. Neurology. 2021. https://doi.org/10.1212/WNL.0000000000011742.

Article  Google Scholar 

Gaude E, Nogueira B, Ladreda Mochales M, et al. A novel combination of blood biomarkers and clinical stroke scales facilitates detection of large vessel occlusion ischemic strokes. Diagnostics (Basel). 2021;11:1137.

Article  Google Scholar 

Larsen K, Jaeger HS, Tveit LH, et al. Ultraearly thrombolysis by an anesthesiologist in a mobile stroke unit a prospective, controlled intervention study. Eur J Neurol. 2021. https://doi.org/10.1111/ene.14877.

Article  Google Scholar 

Larsen K, Jæger HS, Hov MR, et al. Streamlining acute stroke care by introducing National Institutes of Health Stroke Scale in the emergency medical services: a prospective cohort study. Stroke. 2022. https://doi.org/10.1161/STROKEAHA.121.036084.

Article  Google Scholar 

Sacco RL, Kasner SE, Broderick JP, et al. An updated definition of stroke for the 21st century: a statement for healthcare professionals from the American Heart Association/American Stroke Association. Stroke. 2013;44:2064–89.

Article  Google Scholar 

Coupland AP, Thapar A, Qureshi MI, Jenkins H, Davies AH. The definition of stroke. J R Soc Med. 2017;110:9–12.

Article  Google Scholar 

Rennert RC, Wali AR, Steinberg JA, et al. Epidemiology, natural history, and clinical presentation of large vessel ischemic stroke. Neurosurgery. 2019;85:S4–8.

Article  Google Scholar 

Organization WH. International statistical classification of disease and related problems 10th revision [online]. https://icd.who.int/browse10/2010/en.

van Lierop Z, Verberk IMW, van Uffelen KWJ, et al. Pre-analytical stability of serum biomarkers for neurological disease: neurofilament-light, glial fibrillary acidic protein and contactin-1. Clin Chem Lab Med. 2022;60:842–50.

Article  Google Scholar 

Wilson DH, Rissin DM, Kan CW, et al. The Simoa HD-1 analyzer: a novel fully automated digital immunoassay analyzer with single-molecule sensitivity and multiplexing. J Lab Autom. 2015;21:533–47.

Article  Google Scholar 

Faiz KW, Labberton AS, Thommessen B, Rønning OM, Dahl FA, Barra M. The burden of stroke mimics: present and future projections. J Stroke Cerebrovasc Dis. 2018;27:1288–95.

Article  Google Scholar 

Rozanski M. Glial fibrillary acidic protein for prehospital diagnosis of intracerebral hemorrhage. Cerebrovasc Dis (Basel, Switz). 2017;43:76–81.

Article  Google Scholar 

Ren C. Assessment of serum UCH-L1 and GFAP in acute stroke patients. Sci Rep. 2016;6:24588.

Article  Google Scholar 

Undén J. Explorative investigation of biomarkers of brain damage and coagulation system activation in clinical stroke differentiation. J Neurol. 2009;256:72–7.

Article  Google Scholar 

Luger S, Jæger HS, Dixon J, et al. Diagnostic accuracy of glial fibrillary acidic protein and ubiquitin carboxy-terminal hydrolase-L1 serum concentrations for differentiating acute intracerebral hemorrhage from ischemic stroke. Neurocrit Care. 2020;33:39–48.

Article  Google Scholar 

Mattila OS, Ashton NJ, Blennow K, et al. Ultra-early differential diagnosis of acute cerebral ischemia and hemorrhagic stroke by measuring the prehospital release rate of GFAP. Clin Chem. 2021;67:1361–72.

Article  Google Scholar 

Kumar A, Misra S, Yadav AK, et al. Role of glial fibrillary acidic protein as a biomarker in differentiating intracerebral haemorrhage from ischaemic stroke and stroke mimics: a meta-analysis. Biomarkers. 2020;25:1–8.

Article  Google Scholar 

Fjærtoft H, Skogseth-Stephani R, Indredavik B, Krokan TG, Bjerkvik TF, Halle KK, Varmdal V. Årsrapport for 2021. 2022. https://www.kvalitetsregistre.no/register/hjerte-og-karsykdommer/norsk-hjerneslagregister. Norsk Hjerneslagregister.