Levey AS, Eckardt KU, Dorman NM, et al. Nomenclature for kidney function and disease: report of a Kidney Disease: Improving Global Outcomes (KDIGO) Consensus Conference. Kidney Int 2020;97:1117–1129.

Google Scholar 

Conway BN, May ME. Mortality experience of a low-income population with young-onset diabetes. Diabetes Care 2012;35:542–548.

Google Scholar 

Gu HF. Genetic and epigenetic studies in diabetic kidney disease. Front Genet 2019;10:507.

CAS  Google Scholar 

Ram C, Jha AK, Ghosh A, et al. Targeting NLRP3 inflammasome as a promising approach for treatment of diabetic nephropathy: preclinical evidences with therapeutic approaches. Eur J Pharmacol 2020;885:173503.

CAS  Google Scholar 

Brunskill NJ. C-peptide and diabetic kidney disease. J Intern Med 2017;281:41–51.

CAS  Google Scholar 

Ruiz-Ortega M, Rodrigues-Diez RR, Lavoz C, et al. Special issue “Diabetic nephropathy: diagnosis, prevention and treatment”. J Clin Med 2020;9:813.

Google Scholar 

Pan XW, Lin XL, Huang X, et al. The burden of diabetes-related chronic kidney disease in china from 1990 to 2019. Front Endocrinol 2022;13:892860.

Google Scholar 

Pacilli A, Viazzi F, Fioretto P, et al. Epidemiology of diabetic kidney disease in adult patients with type 1 diabetes in Italy: the AMD-Annals initiative. Diabetes Metab Res Rev 2017;33:e2873.

Google Scholar 

Song J, Ni J, Yin X. The genetic side of diabetic kidney disease: a review. Int Urol Nephrol 2022. Epub ahead of print

Vistisen D, Andersen GS, Hulman A, et al. A validated prediction model for end-stage kidney disease in type 1 diabetes. Diabetes Care 2021;44:901–907.

Google Scholar 

Lacava V, Pellicanò V, Ferrajolo C, et al. Novel avenues for treating diabetic nephropathy: new investigational drugs. Expert Opin Inv Drug 2017;26:445–462.

CAS  Google Scholar 

Alehaideb Z, Chin KC, Yao MC, et al. Predicting the content of anthraquinone bioactive in Rhei rhizome (Rheum officinale Baill.) with the concentration addition model. Saudi Pharm J 2019;27:25–32.

Google Scholar 

Mohammed A, Ibrahim MA, Tajuddeen N, et al. Antidiabetic potential of anthraquinones: a review. Phytother Res 2020;34:486–504.

CAS  Google Scholar 

Liu J, Chen Z, Zhang Y, et al. Rhein protects pancreatic β-cells from dynamin-related protein-1-mediated mitochondrial fission and cell apoptosis under hyperglycemia. Diabetes 2013;62:3927–3935.

CAS  Google Scholar 

Yu C, Qi D, Sun J, et al. Rhein prevents endotoxin-induced acute kidney injury by inhibiting NF-κ B activities. Sci Rep 2015;5:11822.

Google Scholar 

Zhang MZ, Wang S, Yang S, et al. Role of blood pressure and the renin-angiotensin system in development of diabetic nephropathy (DN) in eNOS-/- db/db mice. Am J Physiol Renal Physiol 2012;302:F433–F438.

CAS  Google Scholar 

Cheng Y, Zhang H, Qu L, et al. Identification of rhein as the metabolite responsible for toxicity of rhubarb anthraquinones. Food Chem 2020;331:127363.

CAS  Google Scholar 

Gómez-Gaete C, Retamal M, Chávez C, et al. Development, characterization and in vitro evaluation of biodegradable rhein-loaded microparticles for treatment of osteoarthritis. Eur J Pharm Sci 2017;96:390–397.

Google Scholar 

Nair AR, Lakshman YD, Anand VSK, et al. Overview of extensively employed polymeric carriers in solid dispersion technology. AAPS Pharm Sci Tech 2020;21:309.

CAS  Google Scholar 

Shariatinia Z. Carboxymethyl chitosan: properties and biomedical applications. Int J Biol Macromol 2018;120:1406–1419.

CAS  Google Scholar 

Zuckerman JE, Davis ME. Targeting therapeutics to the glomerulus with nanoparticles. Adv Chronic Kidney D 2013;20:500–507.

Google Scholar 

Guo S, Guo X, Zhang H, et al. The effect of diacerein on type 2 diabetic mellitus: a systematic review and meta-analysis of randomized controlled trials with trial sequential analysis. J Diabetes Res 2020;2020:2593792.

Google Scholar 

Hu C, Cong XD, Dai D, et al. Argirein alleviates diabetic nephropathy through attenuating NADPH oxidase, Cx43, and PERK in renal tissue. Naunyn Schmiedebergs Arch Pharmacol 2011;383:309–319.

CAS  Google Scholar 

Hu G, Zhan YZ, Luo GL, et al. Rhein lysinate protects pancreas in type 2 diabetic mice. J Third Milit Med Univ (Chin) 2014;36:461–465.

CAS  Google Scholar 

Said SM, Nasr SH. Silent diabetic nephropathy. Kidney Int 2016;90:24–26.

Google Scholar 

Zhao JX, Wang SD, Li J, et al. Studies about specification of syndrome differentiation on different stages and efficacy evaluation proposal for diabetic kidney disease. World J Tradit Chin Med (Chin) 2017;12:1–4.

Google Scholar 

Huang W, Chen YY, Li ZQ, et al. Recent advances in the emerging therapeutic strategies for diabetic kidney diseases. Int J Mole Sci 2022;23:10882.

CAS  Google Scholar 

Alvarez G, Chrusch C, Hulme T, et al. Renal replacement therapy: a practical update. Can J Anaesth 2019;66:593–604.

Google Scholar 

Backholer K, Peeters A, Herman WH, et al. Diabetes prevention and treatment strategies. Diabetes Care 2013;36:2714–2719.

Google Scholar 

Kotsis V, Martinez F, Trakatelli C, et al. Impact of obesity in kidney diseases. Nutrients 2021;13:4482.

CAS  Google Scholar 

Jiang S, Quan DV, Sung JH, et al. Cigarette smoke inhalation aggravates diabetic kidney injury in rats. Toxicol Res 2019;8:964–971.

CAS  Google Scholar 

Monno I, Ogura Y, Xu J, et al. Exercise ameliorates diabetic kidney disease in type 2 diabetic fatty rats. Antioxidants 2021;10:1754.

CAS  Google Scholar 

Chen Y, Wang X, Jia Y, et al. Effect of a sodium restriction diet on albuminuria and blood pressure in diabetic kidney disease patients: a meta-analysis. Int Urol Nephrol 2022;54:1249–1260.

CAS  Google Scholar 

de Boer IH. Kidney disease and related findings in the diabetes control and complications trial/epidemiology of diabetes interventions and complications study. Diabetes Care 2014;37:24–30.

CAS  Google Scholar 

Noguchi H, Kitada H, Kaku K, et al. Outcome of renal transplantation in patients with type 2 diabetic nephropathy: a single-center experience. Transplant Proc 2015;47:608–611.

CAS  Google Scholar 

Anders HJ, Huber TB, Isermann B, et al. CKD in diabetes: diabetic kidney disease versus nondiabetic kidney disease. Nat Rev Nephrol 2018;14:361–377.

CAS  Google Scholar 

Mima A. A narrative review of diabetic kidney disease: previous and current evidence-based therapeutic approaches. Adv Ther 2022;39:3488–3500.

Google Scholar 

Neal B, Perkovic V, Mahaffey KW, et al. Canagliflozin and cardiovascular and renal events in type 2 diabetes. N Engl J Med 2017;337:644–657.

Google Scholar 

Su K, Yi B, Yao B, et al. Liraglutide attenuates renal tubular ectopic lipid deposition in rats with diabetic nephropathy by inhibiting lipid synthesis and promoting lipolysis. Pharmacol Res 2020;156:104778.

CAS  Google Scholar 

Rosenstock J, Perkovic V, Johansen OE, et al. Effect of linagliptin vs placebo on major cardiovascular events in adults with type 2 diabetes and high cardiovascular and renal risk. JAMA 2019;321:69.

CAS  Google Scholar 

Wang J, Xiang H, Lu Y, et al. New progress in drugs treatment of diabetic kidney disease. Biomed Pharmacother 2021;141:111918.

CAS  Google Scholar 

Moratal C, Laurain A, Naïmi M, et al. Regulation of monocytes/macrophages by the renin-angiotensin system in diabetic nephropathy: state of the art and results of a pilot study. Int J Mol Sci 2021;22:6009.

CAS  Google Scholar 

Kaku K, Chin R, Naito Y, et al. Safety and effectiveness of empagliflozin in Japanese patients with type 2 diabetes: interim analysis from a post-marketing surveillance study. Expert Opin Drug Saf 2022;19:211–221.

Google Scholar 

Walley T, Winstanley P, Roberts D, et al. Adverse effects of captopril in hospital outpatients with hypertension. Postgrad Med J 1990;66:106–109.

CAS  Google Scholar 

Ayhanci A, Cengiz M, Mehtap Kutlu H, et al. Protective effects of ellagic acid in d-galactosamine-induced kidney damage in rats. Cytotechnology 2016;68:1763–1770.

CAS  Google Scholar 

Brenneman J, Hill J, Pullen S. Emerging therapeutics for the treatment of diabetic nephropathy. Bioorg Med Chem Lett 2016;26:4394–4402.

CAS  Google Scholar 

Chen CM, Zhang MM, Hu LM. Effect of rhein on the expression of PPAR γ and TGF-β 1 in renal cortex of obese diabetic rats. J Chin Med Mater (Chin) 2015;38:810–812.

CAS  Google Scholar 

Lin W, Li H, Yang Q, et al. Administration of mesenchymal stem cells in diabetic kidney disease: a systematic review and meta-analysis. Stem Cell Res Ther 2021;12:43.

CAS  Google Scholar 

Persson F, Frimodt-Møller M, Rossing P. Inflammation leads the way on the ROADMAP to diabetic kidney disease. Kidney Int Rep 2019;4:1362–1365.

Google Scholar 

Navarro-González JF, Mora-Fernández C, de Fuentes MM, et al. Inflammatory molecules and pathways in the pathogenesis of diabetic nephropathy. Nat Rev Nephrol 2011;7:327–340.

Google Scholar 

Donate-Correa J, Luis-Rodríguez D, Martín-Núñez E, et al. Inflammatory targets in diabetic nephropathy. J Clin Med 2020;9:458.

CAS  Google Scholar 

Tang SCW, Yiu WH. Innate immunity in diabetic kidney disease. Nat Rev Nephrol 2020;16:206–222.

CAS  Google Scholar 

Wang X, Yao B, Wang Y, et al. Macrophage cyclooxygenase-2 protects against development of diabetic nephropathy. Diabetes 2017;66:494–504.

CAS  Google Scholar 

Torres Á, Muñoz K, Nahuelpán Y, et al. Intraglomerular monocyte/macrophage infiltration and macrophage-myofibroblast transition during diabetic nephropathy is regulated by the A2B adenosine receptor. Cells 2020;9:1051.

CAS  Google Scholar 

Bi F, Chen F, Li Y, et al. Klotho preservation by rhein promotes toll-like receptor 4 proteolysis and attenuates lipopolysaccharide-induced acute kidney injury. J Mol Med (Berl) 2018;96:915–927.

CAS  Google Scholar 

Panah F, Ghorbanihaghjo A, Argani H, et al. Ischemic acute kidney injury and klotho in renal transplantation. Clin Biochem 2018;55:3–8.

CAS  Google Scholar 

Maekawa Y, Ishikawa K, Yasuda O, et al. Klotho suppresses TNF-α-induced expression of adhesion molecules in the endothelium and attenuates NF-κ B activation. Endocrine 2009;35:341–346.

CAS  Google Scholar 

Lim SW, Shin YJ, Luo K, et al. Effect of Klotho on autophagy clearance in tacrolimus-induced renal injury. FASEB J 2018;33:2694–2706.

Google Scholar 

Smith ER. Untangling the thread of life spun by α Klotho. J Mol Med (Berl) 2018;96:857–859.

Google Scholar 

Ge H, Tang H, Liang Y, et al. Rhein attenuates inflammation through inhibition of NF-κ B and NALP3 inflammasome in vivo and in vitro. Drug Des Devel Ther 2017;11:1663–1671.

CAS  Google Scholar 

Gao Y, Chen X, Fang L, et al. Rhein exerts pro- and anti-inflammatory actions by targeting IKK β inhibition in LPS-activated macrophages. Free Radical Bio Med 2014;72:104–112.

CAS  Google Scholar 

Ye L, Chen T, Cao J, et al. Short hairpin RNA attenuates liver fibrosis b