Biomedicines, Vol. 11, Pages 75: Ketamine Inhalation Alters Behavior and Lower Urinary Tract Function in Mice

Conceptualization, S.S.-D.Y.; methodology, Y.-C.C. and H.-H.C.; formal analysis, S.-Y.W. and C.-K.H.; investigation, S.-Y.W., C.-K.H. and H.-H.C.; resources, S.S.-D.Y.; writing—original draft preparation, S.-Y.W.; writing—review and editing, L.-Y.L. and S.S.-D.Y. All authors have read and agreed to the published version of the manuscript.

Figure 1. Flowchart of case distribution and interventions.

Figure 1. Flowchart of case distribution and interventions.

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Figure 2. Ketamine inhalation and body weight change. KI and KP mice had lower body weights than SI and SP mice from the fourth weeks onward (p < 0.05). The values are expressed in means ± SD. An asterisk indicates a significant difference in Bonferroni post-tests following two-way ANOVA (p < 0.05).

Figure 2. Ketamine inhalation and body weight change. KI and KP mice had lower body weights than SI and SP mice from the fourth weeks onward (p < 0.05). The values are expressed in means ± SD. An asterisk indicates a significant difference in Bonferroni post-tests following two-way ANOVA (p < 0.05).

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Figure 3. The effect of ketamine inhalation on behavior during the open field test (OFT). KI and KP mice had increased locomotor activity tracks, but SI and SP mice did not (A). KI and KP mice had higher center crossing frequency, center travel distance, and peripheral distance when compared to SI and SP mice (p < 0.05) (B). The values are expressed in means ± SD. An asterisk indicates a significant difference in Bonferroni post-tests following one-way ANOVA (p < 0.05).

Figure 3. The effect of ketamine inhalation on behavior during the open field test (OFT). KI and KP mice had increased locomotor activity tracks, but SI and SP mice did not (A). KI and KP mice had higher center crossing frequency, center travel distance, and peripheral distance when compared to SI and SP mice (p < 0.05) (B). The values are expressed in means ± SD. An asterisk indicates a significant difference in Bonferroni post-tests following one-way ANOVA (p < 0.05).

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Figure 4. The effect of ketamine on micturition. When compared to SI and SP mice, KI and KP mice had more urine spots but smaller urine spots size (A). The voiding spots area of KI and KP mice had significantly decreased after 12 weeks of ketamine treatment (p < 0.05) (B). The values are expressed in means ± SD. An asterisk indicates a significant difference in Bonferroni post-tests following one-way ANOVA (p < 0.05).

Figure 4. The effect of ketamine on micturition. When compared to SI and SP mice, KI and KP mice had more urine spots but smaller urine spots size (A). The voiding spots area of KI and KP mice had significantly decreased after 12 weeks of ketamine treatment (p < 0.05) (B). The values are expressed in means ± SD. An asterisk indicates a significant difference in Bonferroni post-tests following one-way ANOVA (p < 0.05).

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Figure 5. Ketamine inhalation and urodynamic changes. Unstable detrusor contractions (black arrows) were recorded in the cystometry curves of KI and KP mice but not in SI and SP mice (A). At 3 months, KI and KP mice had significantly lower bladder capacity than SI and SP mice (p < 0.05) (B). The values are expressed in means ± SD. An asterisk indicates a significant difference in Bonferroni post-tests following t-test (p < 0.05).

Figure 5. Ketamine inhalation and urodynamic changes. Unstable detrusor contractions (black arrows) were recorded in the cystometry curves of KI and KP mice but not in SI and SP mice (A). At 3 months, KI and KP mice had significantly lower bladder capacity than SI and SP mice (p < 0.05) (B). The values are expressed in means ± SD. An asterisk indicates a significant difference in Bonferroni post-tests following t-test (p < 0.05).

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Figure 6. Ketamine inhalation and histological changes. Denuded urothelium (arrows) with subcostal edema were observed only in KI and KP mice but not in SI and SP mice.

Figure 6. Ketamine inhalation and histological changes. Denuded urothelium (arrows) with subcostal edema were observed only in KI and KP mice but not in SI and SP mice.

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Table 1. Summary of the results.

Table 1. Summary of the results.

SI GroupSP GroupKI GroupKP Groupp-ValueBody weight (g)28.2 ± 1.727.6 ± 1.424.0 ± 1.924.0 ± 1.40.03Urine ketamine (ng/mL)NegativeNegativePositivePositive Open field test (cm)798.4 ± 110.1908.0 ± 1651331.1 ± 134.11728.3 ± 409.40.01Urine spots size (cm2)1.17 ± 0.211.14 ± 0.070.40 ± 0.250.24 ± 0.130.02Cystometric capacity (mL)0.17 ± 0.010.15 ± 0.010.12 ± 0.010.09 ± 0.010.01

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