Dudley, R. Evolutionary origins of human alcoholism in primate frugivory. Q. Rev. Biol. 75, 3–15 (2000).

Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

Dudley, R. & Maro, A. Human evolution and dietary ethanol. Nutrients 13, 2419 (2021).

Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

World Health Organization. Global status report on alcohol and health 2018 (WHO, 2018).

Humphreys, K. & Kalinowski, A. Governmental standard drink definitions and low-risk alcohol consumption guidelines in 37 countries. Addiction 111, 1293–1298 (2016).

Article  Google Scholar 

American Psychiatric Association. Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders: DSM-5 (American Psychiatric Association, 2013).

World Health Organization. International statistical classification of diseases and related health problems. World Health Organization https://icd.who.int/ (2018).

Babor, T. F., Higgins-Biddle, J. C., Saunders, J. B. & Monteiro, M. G. AUDIT. The Alcohol Use Disorders Identification Test: Guidelines for Use in Primary Care (WHO, 2001).

Volkow, N. D. Stigma and the toll of addiction. N. Engl. J. Med. 382, 1289–1290 (2020).

Article  Google Scholar 

Kilian, C. et al. Stigmatization of people with alcohol use disorders: an updated systematic review of population studies. Alcohol. Clin. Exp. Res. 45, 899–911 (2021).

Article  Google Scholar 

Volkow, N. D., Gordon, J. A. & Koob, G. F. Choosing appropriate language to reduce the stigma around mental illness and substance use disorders. Neuropsychopharmacology 46, 2230–2232 (2021).

Article  Google Scholar 

Saitz, R., Miller, S. C., Fiellin, D. A. & Rosenthal, R. N. Recommended use of terminology in addiction medicine. J. Addict. Med. 15, 3–7 (2021).

Article  Google Scholar 

White, A. et al. Converging patterns of alcohol use and related outcomes among females and males in the United States, 2002 to 2012. Alcohol. Clin. Exp. Res. 39, 1712–1726 (2015).

Article  Google Scholar 

Grant, B. F. et al. Epidemiology of DSM-5 alcohol use disorder: results from the National Epidemiologic Survey on Alcohol and Related Conditions III. JAMA Psychiatry 72, 757–766 (2015).

Article  Google Scholar 

Kittirattanapaiboon, P. et al. Prevalence of mental disorders and mental health problems: Thai national mental health survey 2013. J. Ment. Health Thail. 25, 1–19 (2017).

Google Scholar 

Rehm, J., Room, R., van den Brink, W. & Jacobi, F. Alcohol use disorders in EU countries and Norway: an overview of the epidemiology. Eur. Neuropsychopharmacol. 15, 377–388 (2005).

Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

Rehm, J. et al. Prevalence of alcohol use disorders in primary health-care facilities in Russia in 2019. Addiction 117, 1640–1646 (2022).

Article  Google Scholar 

World Health Organization. ICD-11 for mortality and morbidity statistics. WHO https://icd.who.int/browse11/l-m/en (2018).

Puddephatt, J. A., Irizar, P., Jones, A., Gage, S. H. & Goodwin, L. Associations of common mental disorder with alcohol use in the adult general population: a systematic review and meta-analysis. Addiction 117, 1543–1572 (2022).

Article  Google Scholar 

National Institute on Drug Abuse. Why is there comorbidity between substance use disorders and mental illnesses? National Institute on Drug Abuse https://www.drugabuse.gov/publications/research-reports/common-comorbidities-substance-use-disorders/why-there-comorbidity-between-substance-use-disorders-mental-illnesses (2020).

Chassin, L., Sher, K. J., Hussong, A. & Curran, P. The developmental psychopathology of alcohol use and alcohol disorders: research achievements and future directions. Dev. Psychopathol. 25, 1567–1584 (2013).

Article  Google Scholar 

Kendler, K. S., Prescott, C. A., Myers, J. & Neale, M. C. The structure of genetic and environmental risk factors for common psychiatric and substance use disorders in men and women. Arch. Gen. Psychiatry 60, 929–937 (2003).

Article  Google Scholar 

Hicks, B. M., Krueger, R. F., Iacono, W. G., McGue, M. & Patrick, C. J. Family transmission and heritability of externalizing disorders: a twin-family study. Arch. Gen. Psychiatry 61, 922–928 (2004).

Article  Google Scholar 

Dick, D. M. & Agrawal, A. The genetics of alcohol and other drug dependence. Alcohol. Res. Health 31, 111–118 (2008).

Google Scholar 

Barr, P. B. & Dick, D. M. The genetics of externalizing problems. Curr. Top. Behav. Neurosci. 47, 93–112 (2020).

Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

Rehm, J., Rovira, P., Llamosas-Falcon, L. & Shield, K. D. Dose-response relationships between levels of alcohol use and risks of mortality or disease, for all people, by age, sex and specific risk factors. Nutrients 13, 2652 (2021).

Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

Eckardt, M. J. et al. Effects of moderate alcohol consumption on the central nervous system. Alcohol. Clin. Exp. Res. 22, 998–1040 (1998).

Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

Morojele, N. K., Shenoi, S. V., Shuper, P. A., Braithwaite, R. S. & Rehm, J. Alcohol use and the risk of communicable diseases. Nutrients 13, 3317 (2021).

Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

Rehm, J. et al. The relationship between different dimensions of alcohol use and the burden of disease – an update. Addiction 112, 968–1001 (2017).

Article  Google Scholar 

Rehm, J. et al. The role of alcohol use in the aetiology and progression of liver disease: a narrative review and a quantification. Drug Alcohol. Rev. 40, 1377–1386 (2021).

Article  Google Scholar 

Wild, C. P., Weiderpass, E. & Stewart, B. W. (eds) World Cancer Report: Cancer Research for Cancer Prevention (International Agency for Research on Cancer, 2020).

White, I. R., Altmann, D. R. & Nanchahal, K. Alcohol consumption and mortality: modelling risks for men and women at different ages. BMJ 325, 191 (2002).

Article  Google Scholar 

Shield, K. et al. National, regional, and global burdens of disease from 2000 to 2016 attributable to alcohol use: a comparative risk assessment study. Lancet Public. Health 5, e51–e61 (2020).

Article  Google Scholar 

Zahr, N. M., Kaufman, K. L. & Harper, C. G. Clinical and pathological features of alcohol-related brain damage. Nat. Rev. Neurol. 7, 284 (2011).

Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

Sullivan, E. V., Harris, R. A. & Pfefferbaum, A. Alcohol’s effects on brain and behavior. Alcohol. Res. Health 33, 127–143 (2010).

Google Scholar 

Sullivan, E. V. & Pfefferbaum, A. Alcohol use disorder: neuroimaging evidence for accelerated aging of brain morphology and hypothesized contribution to age-related dementia. Alcohol https://doi.org/10.1016/J.ALCOHOL.2022.06.002 (2022).

Schwarzinger, M. et al. Contribution of alcohol use disorders to the burden of dementia in France 2008-13: a nationwide retrospective cohort study. Lancet Public Health 3, e124–e132 (2018).

Article  Google Scholar 

Lange, S. et al. Global prevalence of fetal alcohol spectrum disorder among children and youth: a systematic review and meta-analysis. JAMA Pediatr. 171, 948–956 (2017).

Article  Google Scholar 

Traccis, F. et al. Alcohol-medication interactions: a systematic review and meta-analysis of placebo-controlled trials. Neurosci. Biobehav. Rev. 132, 519–541 (2021).

Article  Google Scholar 

Laslett, A.-M., Room, R., Waleewong, O., Stanesby, O. & Callinan, S. (eds) Harm to Others from Drinking: Patterns in Nine Societies (WHO, 2019).

Nutt, D. J., King, L. A. & Phillips, L. D. Drug harms in the UK: a multicriteria decision analysis. Lancet 376, 1558–1565 (2010).

Article  Google Scholar 

Manthey, J. et al. What are the economic costs to society attributable to alcohol use? A systematic review and modelling study. Pharmacoeconomics 39, 809–822 (2021).

Article  Google Scholar 

Cloninger, C. R., Bohman, M. & Sigvardsson, S. Inheritance of alcohol abuse. Cross-fostering analysis of adopted men. Arch. Gen. Psychiatry 38, 861–868 (1981).

Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

Cloninger, C. R. Etiologic factors in substance abuse: an adoption study perspective. NIDA Res. Monogr. 89, 52–72 (1988).

CAS  Google Scholar 

Heath, A. C. Genetic influences on alcoholism risk: a review of adoption and twin studies. Alcohol. Health Res. World 19, 166 (1995).

Google Scholar 

Verhulst, B., Neale, M. C. & Kendler, K. S. The heritability of alcohol use disorders: a meta-analysis of twin and adoption studies. Psychol. Med. 45, 1061–1072 (2015).

Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

True, W. R. et al. Common genetic vulnerability for nicotine and alcohol dependence in men. Arch. Gen. Psychiatry 56, 655–661 (1999).

Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

Bierut, L. J. Genetic vulnerability and susceptibility to substance dependence. Neuron 69, 618 (2011).

Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

Morozova, T. V., Goldman, D., Mackay, T. F. C. & Anholt, R. R. H. The genetic basis of alcoholism: multiple phenotypes, many genes, complex networks. Genome Biol. 13, 239 (2012).

Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

Zhou, H. et al. Genome-wide meta-analysis of problematic alcohol use in 435,563 individuals yields insights into biology and relationships with other traits. Nat. Neurosci. 23, 809–818 (2020).

Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

Edenberg, H. J., Gelernter, J. & Agrawal, A. Genetics of alcoholism. Curr. Psychiatry Rep. 21, 26 (2019).

Article  Google Scholar 

Luczak, S. E., Glatt, S. J. & Wall, T. L. Meta-analyses of ALDH2 and ADH1B with alcohol dependence in Asians. Psychol. Bull. 132, 607–621 (2006).

Article  Google Scholar 

Luo, H. R. et al. Origin and dispersal of atypical aldehyde dehydrogenase ALDH2487Lys. Gene 435, 96–103 (2009).

Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

Higuchi, S. et al. Aldehyde dehydrogenase genotypes in Japanese alcoholics. Lancet 343, 741–742 (1994).

Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

Brooks, P. J., Enoch, M. A., Goldman, D., Li, T. K. & Yokoyama, A. The alcohol flushing response: an unrecognized risk factor for esophageal cancer from alcohol consumption. PLoS Med. 6, 0258–0263 (2009).

Article  Google Scholar 

Edenberg, H. J. & McClintick, J. N. Alcohol dehydrogenases, aldehyde dehydrogenases, and alcohol use disorders: a critical review. Alcohol. Clin. Exp. Res. 42, 2281–2297 (2018).

Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

Ray, L. A. & Hutchison, K. E. Effects of naltrexone on alcohol sensitivity and genetic moderators of medication response: a double-blind placebo-controlled study. Arch. Gen. Psychiatry 64, 1069–1077 (2007).

Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

Ray, L. A. & Hutchison, K. E. A polymorphism of the µ,-opioid receptor gene (OPRM1) and sensitivity to the effects of alcohol in humans. Alcohol. Clin. Exp. Res. 28, 1789–1795 (2004).