*RAND Corporation, Santa Monica, CA

†RAND Corporation, Pittsburgh, PA

‡National Committee for Quality Assurance, Washington, DC

§Centers for Medicare & Medicaid Services, Baltimore, MD

∥RAND Corporation, Arlington, VA

Supported by the Centers for Medicare & Medicaid Services (CMS) contract HHSM-500-2016-00097G.

J.L.M. is an employee of the sponsoring agency. The remaining authors declare no conflict of interest.

Correspondence to: Marc N. Elliott, PhD, Senior Principal Researcher & RAND Distinguished Chair, Statistics, RAND Corporation, 1776 Main Street, P.O. Box 2138, Santa Monica, CA 90401. E-mail: [email protected].

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