Local Burden of Disease Child Growth Failure Collaborators. Mapping child growth failure across low- and middle-income countries. Nature. 2020;577(7789):231-4. https://doi.org/10.1038/s41586-019-1878-8.

Orr J, Freer J, Morris JK, Hancock C, Walton R, Dunkel L, et al. Regional differences in short stature in England between 2006 and 2019: a cross-sectional analysis from the National Child Measurement Programme. PLoS Med. 2021;18(9):e1003760-e.

Article  Google Scholar 

Hancock C, Bettiol S, Smith L. Socioeconomic variation in height: analysis of National Child Measurement Programme data for England. Arch Dis Child. 2016;101(5):422–6.

Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

Teranishi H, Nakagawa H, Marmot M. Social class difference in catch up growth in a national British cohort. Arch Dis Child. 2001;84(3):218–21.

Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  CAS  Google Scholar 

Grantham-McGregor S, Cheung YB, Cueto S, Glewwe P, Richter L, Strupp B. Developmental potential in the first 5 years for children in developing countries. The Lancet. 2007;369(9555):60–70.

Article  Google Scholar 

Crookston BT, Schott W, Cueto S, Dearden KA, Engle P, Georgiadis A, et al. Postinfancy growth, schooling, and cognitive achievement: Young Lives. Am J Clin Nutr. 2013;98(6):1555–63.

Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  CAS  Google Scholar 

Kowalski AJ, Georgiadis A, Behrman JR, Crookston BT, Fernald LCH, Stein AD. Linear growth through 12 years is weakly but consistently associated with language and math achievement scores at age 12 years in 4 low- or middle-income countries. J Nutr. 2018;148(11):1852–9.

Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

Fink G, Rockers PC. Childhood growth, schooling, and cognitive development: further evidence from the Young Lives study. Am J Clin Nutr. 2014;100(1):182–8.

Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

Georgiadis A, Benny L, Crookston B, Duc L, Hermida P, Mani S, et al. Growth trajectories from conception through middle childhood and cognitive achievement at age 8 years: evidence from four low- and middle-income countries. SSM - Population Health. 2016;2:43–54.

Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

Crookston BT, Penny ME, Alder SC, Dickerson TT, Merrill RM, Stanford JB, et al. Children who recover from early stunting and children who are not stunted demonstrate similar levels of cognition. J Nutr. 2010;140(11):1996–2001.

Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

Poveda NE, Hartwig FP, Victora CG, Adair LS, Barros FC, Bhargava SK, et al. Patterns of growth in childhood in relation to adult schooling attainment and intelligence quotient in 6 birth cohorts in low- and middle-income countries: evidence from the Consortium of Health-Oriented Research in Transitioning Societies (COHORTS). J Nutr. 2021;151(8):2342–52.

Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

Nahar B, Hossain M, Mahfuz M, Islam MM, Hossain MI, Murray-Kolb LE, et al. Early childhood development and stunting: findings from the MAL-ED birth cohort study in Bangladesh. Matern Child Nutr. 2020;16(1):e12864.

Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

Berkman DS, Lescano AG, Gilman RH, Lopez SL, Black MM. Effects of stunting, diarrhoeal disease, and parasitic infection during infancy on cognition in late childhood: a follow-up study. Lancet. 2002;359(9306):564–71.

Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

Walker SP, Chang SM, Powell CA, Grantham-McGregor SM. Effects of early childhood psychosocial stimulation and nutritional supplementation on cognition and education in growth-stunted Jamaican children: prospective cohort study. Lancet. 2005;366(9499):1804–7.

Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

Miller AC, Murray MB, Thomson DR, Arbour MC. How consistent are associations between stunting and child development? Evidence from a meta-analysis of associations between stunting and multidimensional child development in fifteen low- and middle-income countries. Public Health Nutr. 2016;19(8):1339–47.

Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

Hamadani JD, Tofail F, Huda SN, Alam DS, Ridout DA, Attanasio O, et al. Cognitive deficit and poverty in the first 5 years of childhood in Bangladesh. Pediatrics. 2014;134(4):e1001–8.

Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

Haile D, Nigatu D, Gashaw K, Demelash H. Height for age z score and cognitive function are associated with academic performance among school children aged 8–11 years old. Arch Public Health. 2016;74:17.

Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

Sudfeld CR, McCoy DC, Danaei G, Fink G, Ezzati M, Andrews KG, et al. Linear growth and child development in low- and middle-income countries: a meta-analysis. Pediatrics. 2015;135(5):e1266–75.

Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

Horta BL, Victora CG, de Mola CL, Quevedo L, Pinheiro RT, Gigante DP, et al. Associations of linear growth and relative weight gain in early life with human capital at 30 years of age. J Pediatr. 2017;182:85-91.e3.

Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

Gandhi M, Ashorn P, Maleta K, Teivaanmäki T, Duan X, Cheung YB. Height gain during early childhood is an important predictor of schooling and mathematics ability outcomes. Acta Paediatr. 2011;100(8):1113–8.

Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

Tarleton JL, Haque R, Mondal D, Shu J, Farr BM, Petri WA Jr. Cognitive effects of diarrhea, malnutrition, and Entamoeba histolytica infection on school age children in Dhaka. Bangladesh Am J Trop Med Hyg. 2006;74(3):475–81.

Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

Kar BR, Rao SL, Chandramouli BA. Cognitive development in children with chronic protein energy malnutrition. Behav Brain Funct. 2008;4(1):31.

Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

Richards M, Hardy R, Kuh D, Wadsworth ME. Birthweight, postnatal growth and cognitive function in a national UK birth cohort. Int J Epidemiol. 2002;31(2):342–8.

Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

Pearce MS, Deary IJ, Young AH, Parker L. Growth in early life and childhood IQ at age 11 years: the Newcastle Thousand Families Study. Int J Epidemiol. 2005;34(3):673–7.

Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

University of London IoE, Centre for Longitudinal Studies. Millennium Cohort Study: first survey, 2001–2003. 13th Edition ed. London: UK Data Service; 2021.

University of London IoE, Centre for Longitudinal Studies. Millennium Cohort Study: second survey, 2003–2005. London.

10th Edition ed. UK Data Service. London: 2021.

University of London IoE, Centre for Longitudinal Studies. Millennium Cohort Study: third survey. London: 2006.

8th Edition ed. UK Data Service. London: 2021.

University of London IoE, Centre for Longitudinal Studies. Millennium Cohort Study: fourth survey. London: 2008.

8th Edition ed. UK Data Service. London: 2021.

University of London IoE, Centre for Longitudinal Studies. Millennium Cohort Study: fifth survey, 2012. 5th Edition ed. UK Data Service. London: 2021.

University of London IoE, Centre for Longitudinal Studies. Millennium Cohort Study: sixth survey, 2015. 7th Edition ed. UK Data Service. London: 2020.

University of London IoE, Centre for Longitudinal Studies. Millennium Cohort Study: seventh survey, 2018. 2nd Edition ed. London: UK Data Service; 2021.

Joshi H, Fitzsimons E. The Millennium Cohort Study: the making of a multi-purpose resource for social science and policy. Longitudinal Life Course Studies. 2016;7(4):409–30.

Article  Google Scholar 

Connelly R. Interpreting test scores. Institute of Education, Discussion Paper. 2013(2013/1).

Barbuscia A, Mills MC. Cognitive development in children up to age 11 years born after ART—a longitudinal cohort study. Hum Reprod. 2017;32(7):1482–8.

Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

Wright CM, Williams AF, Elliman D, Bedford H, Birks E, Butler G, et al. Using the new UK-WHO growth charts. BMJ. 2010;340:c1140.

Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

Shenkin SD, Starr JM, Deary IJ. Birth weight and cognitive ability in childhood: a systematic review. Psychol Bull. 2004;130(6):989–1013.

Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

Linsell L, Malouf R, Morris J, Kurinczuk JJ, Marlow N. Prognostic factors for poor cognitive development in children born very preterm or with very low birth weight: a systematic review. JAMA Pediatr. 2015;169(12):1162–72.

Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

Caravale B, Tozzi C, Albino G, Vicari S. Cognitive development in low risk preterm infants at 3–4 years of life. Arch Dis Child Fetal Neonatal Ed. 2005;90(6):F474–9.

Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  CAS  Google Scholar 

Investigators M-EN. Early childhood cognitive development is affected by interactions among illness, diet, enteropathogens and the home environment: findings from the MAL-ED birth cohort study. BMJ Glob Health. 2018;3(4):e000752.

Article  Google Scholar 

Sacker A, Quigley MA, Kelly YJ. Breastfeeding and developmental delay: findings from the millennium cohort study. Pediatrics. 2006;118(3):e682–9.

Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

Smith JM. Breastfeeding and language outcomes: a review of the literature. J Commun Disord. 2015;57:29–40.

Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

Hernández-Alava M, Popli G. Children’s development and parental input: evidence from the UK Millennium Cohort Study. Demography. 2017;54(2):485–511.

Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

Mensah FK, Kiernan KE. Parents’ mental health and children’s cognitive and social development: families in England in the Millennium Cohort Study. Soc Psychiatry Psychiatr Epidemiol. 2010;45(11):1023–35.

Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

Field T. Prenatal depression effects on early development: a review. Infant Behav Dev. 2011;34(1):1–14.

Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

Srivastava P, Trinh TA. The effect of parental smoking on children’s cognitive and non-cognitive skills. Econ Hum Biol. 2021;41:100978.

Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

Tearne JE. Older maternal age and child behavioral and cognitive outcomes: a review of the literature. Fertil Steril. 2015;103(6):1381–91.

Article