International Diabetes Federation. IDF Diabetes Atlas 10th edn (IDF, 2021).

Franks, P. W. & Poveda, A. Lifestyle and precision diabetes medicine: will genomics help optimise the prediction, prevention and treatment of type 2 diabetes through lifestyle therapy? Diabetologia 60, 784–792 (2017).

Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

Chan, J. C. N. et al. The Lancet Commission on Diabetes: using data to transform diabetes care and patient lives. Lancet 396, 2019–2082 (2021).

Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

GBD 2019 Risk Factors Collaborators. Global burden of 87 risk factors in 204 countries and territories, 1990–2019: a systematic analysis for the Global Burden of Disease Study 2019. Lancet 396, 1223–1249 (2020).

Article  Google Scholar 

Magliano, D. J. et al. Trends in incidence of total or type 2 diabetes: systematic review. BMJ 366, l5003 (2019).

Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

American Diabetes Association. Economic costs of diabetes in the U.S. in 2017. Diabetes Care 41, 917–928 (2018).

Article  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

Magliano, D. J., Martin, V. J., Owen, A. J., Zomer, E. & Liew, D. The productivity burden of diabetes at a population level. Diabetes Care 41, 979–984 (2018).

Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

Gregg, E. W., Hora, I. & Benoit, S. R. Resurgence in diabetes-related complications. JAMA 321, 1867–1868 (2019).

Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

Rossing, P. et al. Executive summary of the KDIGO 2022 clinical practice guideline for diabetes management in chronic kidney disease: an update based on rapidly emerging new evidence. Kidney Int. 102, 990–999 (2022).

Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

Draznin, B. et al. 4. Comprehensive medical evaluation and assessment of comorbidities: standards of medical care in diabetes-2022. Diabetes Care 45, S46–S59 (2022).

Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

Flegal, K. M., Kit, B. K., Orpana, H. & Graubard, B. I. Association of all-cause mortality with overweight and obesity using standard body mass index categories: a systematic review and meta-analysis. JAMA 309, 71–82 (2013).

Article  CAS  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

Kim, Y. H. et al. Underweight increases the risk of end-stage renal diseases for type 2 diabetes in Korean population: data from the national health insurance service health checkups 2009–2017. Diabetes Care 43, 1118–1125 (2020).

Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

Yokomichi, H. et al. All-cause and cardiovascular disease mortality in underweight patients with diabetic nephropathy: BioBank Japan cohort. J. Diabetes Investig. 12, 1425–1429 (2021).

Article  CAS  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

Di Angelantonio, E. et al. Association of cardiometabolic multimorbidity with mortality. JAMA 314, 52–60 (2015).

Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

Magliano, D. J. et al. Trends in all-cause mortality among people with diagnosed diabetes in high-income settings: a multicountry analysis of aggregate data. Lancet Diabetes Endocrinol. 10, 112–119 (2022).

Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

Harding, J. L., Pavkov, M. E., Gregg, E. W. & Burrows, N. R. Trends of nontraumatic lower-extremity amputation in end-stage renal disease and diabetes: United States, 2000–2015. Diabetes Care 42, 1430–1435 (2019).

Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

Ling, W. et al. Global trend of diabetes mortality attributed to vascular complications, 2000–2016. Cardiovasc. Diabetol. 19, 182 (2020).

Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

Wu, H. et al. Trends in diabetes-related complications in Hong Kong, 2001–2016: a retrospective cohort study. Cardiovasc. Diabetol. 19, 60 (2020).

Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

Ali, M. K., Pearson-Stuttard, J., Selvin, E. & Gregg, E. W. Interpreting global trends in type 2 diabetes complications and mortality. Diabetologia 65, 3–13 (2022).

Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

Rawshani, A. et al. Risk factors, mortality, and cardiovascular outcomes in patients with type 2 diabetes. N. Engl. J. Med. 379, 633–644 (2018).

Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

Wu, H. et al. Secular trends in all-cause and cause-specific mortality rates in people with diabetes in Hong Kong, 2001-2016: a retrospective cohort study. Diabetologia 63, 757–766 (2020).

Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

Norhammar, A. et al. Cost of healthcare utilization associated with incident cardiovascular and renal disease in individuals with type 2 diabetes: a multinational, observational study across 12 countries. Diabetes Obes. Metab. 24, 1277–1287 (2022).

Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

Ahlqvist, E. et al. Novel subgroups of adult-onset diabetes and their association with outcomes: a data-driven cluster analysis of six variables. Lancet Diabetes Endocrinol. 6, 361–369 (2018).

Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

Xiong, X. F. et al. Identification of two novel subgroups in patients with diabetes mellitus and their association with clinical outcomes: a two-step cluster analysis. J. Diabetes Investig. 12, 1346–1358 (2021).

Article  CAS  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

Grundy, S. M. et al. Diabetes and cardiovascular disease. Circulation 100, 1134–1146 (1999).

Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

Kannel, W. B. & McGee, D. L. Diabetes and cardiovascular disease. the Framingham study. JAMA 241, 2035–2038 (1979).

Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

American Diabetes Association Professional Practice Committee. 10. Cardiovascular disease and risk management: standards of medical care in diabetes-2022. Diabetes Care 45, S144–s174 (2022).

Article  Google Scholar 

Poznyak, A. et al. The diabetes mellitus–atherosclerosis connection: the role of lipid and glucose metabolism and chronic inflammation. Int. J. Mol. Sci. 21, 1835 (2020).

Article  CAS  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

Creager, M. A., LüScher, T. F., Cosentino, F. & Beckman, J. A. Diabetes and vascular disease. Circulation 108, 1527–1532 (2003).

Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

Giugliano, D., Maiorino, M. I., Bellastella, G. & Esposito, K. The residual cardiorenal risk in type 2 diabetes. Cardiovasc. Diabetol. 20, 36 (2021).

Article  CAS  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

Giugliano, D., Maiorino, M. I., Bellastella, G. & Esposito, K. Glycemic control in type 2 diabetes: from medication nonadherence to residual vascular risk. Endocrine 61, 23–27 (2018).

Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

Zinman, B. et al. Empagliflozin, cardiovascular outcomes, and mortality in type 2 diabetes. N. Engl. J. Med. 373, 2117–2128 (2015).

Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

Wiviott, S. D. et al. Dapagliflozin and cardiovascular outcomes in type 2 diabetes. N. Engl. J. Med. 380, 347–357 (2019).

Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

Neal, B. et al. Canagliflozin and cardiovascular and renal events in type 2 diabetes. N. Engl. J. Med. 377, 644–657 (2017).

Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

Cherney, D. Z., Kanbay, M. & Lovshin, J. A. Renal physiology of glucose handling and therapeutic implications. Nephrol. Dial. Transplant. 35 (Suppl. 1), i3–i12 (2020).

Article  CAS  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

Kashiwagi, A. & Maegawa, H. Metabolic and hemodynamic effects of sodium-dependent glucose cotransporter 2 inhibitors on cardio-renal protection in the treatment of patients with type 2 diabetes mellitus. J. Diabetes Investig. 8, 416–427 (2017).

Article  CAS  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

Thomas, M. C. & Cherney, D. Z. I. The actions of SGLT2 inhibitors on metabolism, renal function and blood pressure. Diabetologia 61, 2098–2107 (2018).

Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

Inzucchi, S. E. et al. How does empagliflozin reduce cardiovascular mortality? Insights from a mediation analysis of the EMPA-REG OUTCOME trial. Diabetes Care 41, 356–363 (2018).

Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

Hilton, P. J. Na+ transport in hypertension. Diabetes Care 14, 233–239 (1991).

Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

Ferrannini, E. et al. Metabolic response to sodium-glucose cotransporter 2 inhibition in type 2 diabetic patients. J. Clin. Invest. 124, 499–508 (2014).

Article  CAS