McKay MT, Cannon M, Chambers D, Conroy RM, Coughlan H, Dodd P, et al. Childhood trauma and adult mental disorder: a systematic review and meta-analysis of longitudinal cohort studies. Acta Psychiatr Scand. 2021;143(3):189–205.

Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

Li M, D’Arcy C, Meng X. Maltreatment in childhood substantially increases the risk of adult depression and anxiety in prospective cohort studies: systematic review, meta-analysis, and proportional attributable fractions. Psychol Med. 2016;46(4):717–30.

Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

Lang J, Kerr DM, Petri-Romão P, McKee T, Smith H, Wilson N, et al. The hallmarks of childhood abuse and neglect: a systematic review. PLoS ONE. 2020;15(12):e0243639.

Article  CAS  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

Porter C, Palmier-Claus J, Branitsky A, Mansell W, Warwick H, Varese F. Childhood adversity and borderline personality disorder: a meta-analysis. Acta Psychiatr Scand. 2020;141(1):6–20.

Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

Briere J, Hodges M, Godbout N. Traumatic stress, affect dysregulation, and dysfunctional avoidance: a structural equation model. J Trauma Stress. 2010;23(6):767–74.

Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

Hecht KF, Cicchetti D, Rogosch FA, Crick NR. Borderline personality features in childhood: the role of subtype, developmental timing, and chronicity of child maltreatment. Dev Psychopathol. 2014;26(3):805–15.

Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

Ibrahim J, Cosgrave N, Woolgar M. Childhood maltreatment and its link to borderline personality disorder features in children: a systematic review approach. Clin Child Psychol Psychiatry. 2018;23(1):57–76.

Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

MacIntosh HB, Godbout N, Dubash N. Borderline personality disorder: disorder of trauma or personality, a review of the empirical literature. Can Psychol. 2015;56(2):227.

Article  Google Scholar 

Brown RC, Heines S, Witt A, Braehler E, Fegert JM, Harsch D, et al. The impact of child maltreatment on non-suicidal self-injury: data from a representative sample of the general population. BMC Psychiatry. 2018;18(1):1–8.

Article  Google Scholar 

Liu RT. Childhood maltreatment and impulsivity: a meta-analysis and recommendations for future study. J Abnorm Child Psychol. 2019;47(2):221–43.

Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

American Psychiatric Association. Diagnostic and statistical manual of mental disorders. Washington, DC: American Psychiatric Association; 1980.

Google Scholar 

World Health Organization. International statistical classification of diseases and related health problems. Available at: https://www.who.int/classifications/icd/en/. Accessed 29 Nov 2022.

Bender DS, Morey LC, Skodol AE. Toward a model for assessing level of personality functioning in DSM–5, part I: a review of theory and methods. J Pers Assess. 2011;93(4):332–46.

Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

Sharp C, Wall K. DSM-5 level of personality functioning: refocusing personality disorder on what it means to be human. Annu Rev Clin Psychol. 2021;17:313–37.

Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

Crempien C, Grez M, Valdés C, López MJ, De La Parra G, Krause M. Role of personality functioning in the quality of life of patients with depression. J Nerv Ment Dis. 2017;205(9):705–13.

Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

Dagnino P, Ugarte MJ, Morales F, González S, Saralegui D, Ehrenthal JC. Risk factors for adult depression: adverse childhood experiences and personality functioning. Front Psychol. 2020;11:594698.

Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

Doering S, Blüml V, Parth K, Feichtinger K, Gruber M, Aigner M, et al. Personality functioning in anxiety disorders. BMC Psychiatry. 2018;18(1):1–9.

Article  Google Scholar 

Bach B, Hutsebaut J. Level of personality functioning scale-brief form 2.0: utility in capturing personality problems in psychiatric outpatients and incarcerated addicts. J Pers Assess. 2018;100(6):660–70.

Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

Finzi-Dottan R, Karu T. From emotional abuse in childhood to psychopathology in adulthood: a path mediated by immature defense mechanisms and self-esteem. J Nerv Ment Dis. 2006;194(8):616–21.

Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

van Harmelen A-L, de Jong PJ, Glashouwer KA, Spinhoven P, Penninx BW, Elzinga BM. Child abuse and negative explicit and automatic self-associations: the cognitive scars of emotional maltreatment. Behav Res Ther. 2010;48(6):486–94.

Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

Ross ND, Kaminski PL, Herrington R. From childhood emotional maltreatment to depressive symptoms in adulthood: the roles of self-compassion and shame. Child Abuse Negl. 2019;92:32–42.

Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

Bertele N, Talmon A, Gross JJ, Schmahl C, Schmitz M, Niedtfeld I. Childhood maltreatment and borderline personality disorder: the mediating role of difficulties with emotion regulation. J Pers Disord. 2022;36(3):264–76.

Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

Heleniak C, Jenness JL, Vander Stoep A, McCauley E, McLaughlin KA. Childhood maltreatment exposure and disruptions in emotion regulation: a transdiagnostic pathway to adolescent internalizing and externalizing psychopathology. Cogn Ther Res. 2016;40(3):394–415.

Article  Google Scholar 

Krvavac S, Jansson B. The role of emotion dysregulation and alexithymia in the link between types of child abuse and neglect and psychopathology: a moderated mediation model. Eur J Trauma Dissociation. 2021;5(3):100213.

Article  Google Scholar 

Li ET, Carracher E, Bird T. Linking childhood emotional abuse and adult depressive symptoms: the role of mentalizing incapacity. Child Abuse Negl. 2020;99:104253.

Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

Muller RT, Thornback K, Bedi R. Attachment as a mediator between childhood maltreatment and adult symptomatology. J Fam Violence. 2012;27(3):243–55.

Article  Google Scholar 

Whiffen VE, MacIntosh HB. Mediators of the link between childhood sexual abuse and emotional distress: a critical review. Trauma Violence Abuse. 2005;6(1):24–39.

Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

Berthelot N, Lemieux R, Garon-Bissonnette J, Lacharité C, Muzik M. The protective role of mentalizing: reflective functioning as a mediator between child maltreatment, psychopathology and parental attitude in expecting parents. Child Abuse Negl. 2019;95:104065.

Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

London MJ, Lilly MM, Pittman L. Attachment as a mediator between community violence and posttraumatic stress symptoms among adolescents with a history of maltreatment. Child Abuse Negl. 2015;42:1–9.

Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

Huang YL, Fonagy P, Feigenbaum J, Montague PR, Nolte T, Consortium MDR. Multidirectional pathways between attachment, mentalizing, and posttraumatic stress symptomatology in the context of childhood trauma. Psychopathology. 2020;53(1):48–58.

Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

McLaughlin KA, Colich NL, Rodman AM, Weissman DG. Mechanisms linking childhood trauma exposure and psychopathology: a transdiagnostic model of risk and resilience. BMC Med. 2020;18(1):1–11.

Article  Google Scholar 

Freier A, Kruse J, Schmalbach B, Zara S, Werner S, Brähler E, et al. The mediation effect of personality functioning between different types of child maltreatment and the development of depression/anxiety symptoms–a German representative study. J Affect Disord. 2022;299:408–15.

Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

Krakau L, Tibubos AN, Beutel ME, Ehrenthal JC, Gieler U, Brähler E. Personality functioning as a mediator of adult mental health following child maltreatment. J Affect Disord. 2021;291:126–34.

Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

Ehrenthal JC, Dinger U, Horsch L, Komo-Lang M, Klinkerfuß M, Grande T, et al. Der OPD-Strukturfragebogen (OPD-SF): erste ergebnisse zu reliabilität und validität. Psychother Psychosom Med Psychol. 2012;62(01):25–32.

Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

Ehrenthal JC, Dinger U, Schauenburg H, Horsch L, Dahlbender RW, Gierk B. Entwicklung einer Zwölf-Item-Version des OPD-Strukturfragebogens (OPD-SFK)/Development of a 12-item version of the OPD-Structure Questionnaire (OPD-SQS). Z Psychosom Med Psychother. 2015;61(3):262–74.

PubMed  Google Scholar 

Oltmanns TF, Turkheimer E. Person perception and personality pathology. Curr Dir Psychol Sci. 2009;18(1):32–6.

Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

d'Huart D, Steppan M, Seker S, Bürgin D, Boonmann C, Birkhölzer M, et al. Prevalence and 10-Year stability of personality disorders from adolescence to young adulthood in a high-risk sample. Front Psychiatry. 2022. https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyt.2022.840678.

Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

Schmid M, Kölch M, Fegert J, Schmeck K. Abschlussbericht Modellversuch Abklärung und Zielerreichung in Stationären Maßnahmen (MAZ). Bern: Bundesamt für Justiz; 2013.

Google Scholar 

Bernstein DP, Stein JA, Newcomb MD, Walker E, Pogge D, Ahluvalia T, et al. Development and validation of a brief screening version of the childhood trauma questionnaire. Child Abuse Negl. 2003;27(2):169–90.

Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

Hutsebaut J, Kamphuis JH, Feenstra DJ, Weekers LC, De Saeger H. Assessing DSM–5-oriented level of personality functioning: development and psychometric evaluation of the semi-structured interview for personality functioning DSM–5 (STiP-51). Personal Disord Theory Res Treat. 2017;8(1):94.

Article  Google Scholar 

Achenbach TM. The achenbach system of empirically based assessemnt (aseba): development, findings, theory, and applications. Burlington, VT: University of Vermont Research Center for Children, Youth, & Families; 2009.

Google Scholar 

Achenbach TM, Rescorla LA. Manual for the ASEBA school-age forms & profiles. Burlington, VT: University of Vermont, Research Center for Children, Youth, & Families; 2001.

Google Scholar 

Achenbach TM. Manual for the young adult self-report and young adult behaviour checklist. Burlington: University of Vermont, Burlington; 1997.

Google Scholar 

Achenbach TM, Bernstein A, Dumenci L. DSM-oriented scales and statistically based sy