A cooked leaf of Malva sylvestris may be eaten as a healthy vegetable in soups or simmered in yoghurt as a side dish to treat these ailments (Akash et al. 2012). However, it is also possible to cure these diseases with synthetic medications, which may have adverse effects. According to the author, a decoction made from the plant’s aerial parts is commonly utilised in traditional Persian medicine for treating gastrointestinal lesions, as a tonic for the gastrointestinal system, or even as a side dish. This is mainly due to the plant’s capacity to clean the colon (Rahimi et al. 2010). Besides, several preparations of Malva sylvestris (Mallow) flowers, leaves, and fruits, as well as their oral dosage forms, functional foods, and rectal douche, were investigated for their potential role in the treatment of stomach and rectal ulceration, and also pain and inflammation. in several Persian traditional and medical literature such as Qarabadin-e-azam (a lithograph book written by Hakim Tohfat ol Moemenin (Tonekaboni, 1670 AD), Azamkhan in 1853 AD), Qarabadin-e-salehi (Heravi, 1765), Qarabadin-e-kabir (Aghili Shirazi, 1772), and Qarabadin-e-kabir (Zargaran et al. 2014).

Almost all extracts of Malva sylvestris have been revealed to have anti-inflammatory, antioxidant, wound-healing (Prudente et al. 2013a; Sleiman and Daher 2009) and immunomodulatory properties (Pirbalouti et al. 2010). As previously described, Malva sylvestris (Malvaceae) grows yearly and may be found mainly in South-West Asia, North Africa, and Europe, among other places. Several chemicals with biological activities, including polysaccharides, carotenoids, polyphenols, fatty acids, ascorbic acid, and tocopherol, have been extracted from the edible sections of the plant in various concentrations (Cutillo et al. 2006; Pirbalouti and Koohpyeh 2011). Studies on this plant’s phytochemistry have reported the existence of many compounds with biological properties, including tannins, polysaccharides, flavonols, essential oil, anthocyanidins, flavones, anthocyanins, mucilagen, leucoanthocyanidines, coumarins, and terpenoids such as diterpenes, sesquiterpenes, and monoterpenes (Cutillo et al. 2006; Farina et al. 1995; Schulz et al. 2003; Gasparetto et al. 2012b).

Experts like Schulz et al. (2003) and Guarrera (2005) have revealed that Malva sylvestris has been used in traditional medicine for emollient and laxative functions since the dawn of time in popular treatment for its anti-inflammatory effects. Similarly, Guarrera (2005) found that M. sylvestris has antinociceptive, anti-inflammatory, and anti-carrageenan-induced paw oedema when locally administered In animal models (Gasparetto et al. 2012b). In addition to the antioxidant and antiradical characteristics of M. sylvestris, which have since been established by DellaGreca et al. (2009), the widespread use of this plant as an emollient, particularly its anti-inflammatory properties on the skin, has not piqued research interest. Besides being used as a natural product, M. sylvestris is also employed in infant feeding owing to its high micronutrients and other essential components (Guarrera 2003). Young leaves of the plant are often eaten raw in salads, while the shoots and older leaves are typically cooked and used as greens in soups and other dishes. Children, shepherds, and hunters eat immature fruits by sucking or chewing them (Barros et al. 2010; Neves et al. 2009).

All living things are protected from the outside world by a complex organ called skin, which performs a variety of vital functions such as defence against physical, chemical, and biological attacks that can lead to varying inflammatory conditions that manifest themselves on the skin's surface (Kanitakis 2002; Murphy et al. 2000). Keratinocytes (KC) predominate in this region of the body and are capable of producing cytokines, chemokines, and growth regulators (Uchi et al. 2000); however, many of these components are either retained in the cytoplasm or are not synthesised, which results in KC destruction and skin inflammation due to the damage (De Benedictis et al. 2001). In addition to inflammation, the skin can be affected by psoriasis, an immunological disorder, and atopic dermatitis, a persistent, recurrent skin conditions disease characterised by pruritic and eczematoid lesions. Both conditions can cause the skin to become inflamed (Gottlieb 2005; Leung et al. 2003).

Uchi et al. (2000) reveal that cytokines generated by Keranocytes are essential in controlling immunological and inflammatory reactions via their receptors on Langerhans cells, endothelial cells and dermal fibroblasts, Keratinocytes, and infiltrating T-cells. Contrarily, the adverse effects reported in patients with psoriasis or those with atopic dermatitis are characterised by dense infiltration of neutrophils, T cells, macrophages, dendritic cells, and natural killer cells (NK cells) (Clark and Kupper 2006), eosinophilia, and increased concentrations of interleukins (IL), prostaglandin (PG) E2, and immunoglobulin (Ig) E (Leung and Soter 2001).

Glucocorticoids and immunosuppressants, which are medications that have been used in conventional medicine to treat psoriasis and atopic dermatitis, have revealed significant side effects and toxicity, thus opening up the field of research and development of drugs with potent activity against the pathogens responsible for these pathologies but also with attenuated side effects (Leung et al. 2003, 2004). One of the solutions to these issues is topical medications, which are commonly used because they are more universally accepted than systemic medications and less evasive than systemic medications (Mrowietz and Reich 2009). Combining local treatment with systemic medication to treat skin problems may also be beneficial. Urpe et al. (2005) revealed the importance of the use of certain compounds such as tar, keratolytic, emollients, corticosteroids, dithranol, and vitamin D derivatives in topical applications to improve scaling and inflammation, as well as to minimise the pool of growth factors and cytokines, that also play an essential role in promoting inflammatory responses and hyperproliferation of the epidermis. These topical medications, when used regularly, are very important since they stimulate and enhance the mental attitude toward conditions such as psoriasis (Mason et al. 2000).

Diseases connected to metabolic changes, such as diabetes mellitus, that impact several different plants now control the body. This is in addition to the disorders stated before (Akash et al. 2011; Romila et al. 2010; Patel et al. 2012; Ponnusamy et al. 2011; Arif et al. 2014). In this regard, Pirbalouti et al. (2010) and Pirbalouti et al. (2012) recently reported a healing capacity of Malva sylvestris in alloxan-induced diabetic rats. Similarly, several studies have also demonstrated the antiulcerogenic and antiinflammatory properties of Malva sylvestris extracts (Conforti et al. 2008b; Sleiman and Daher 2009; Pirbalouti et al. 2010; Gasparetto et al. 2012b). Known as a plant with an antioxidant effect, several preliminary unpublished works have also reported that Malva sylvestris is endowed with hepatoprotective properties.

In India, Malva sylvestris grass is commonly known as mallow and can grow to a height of 4 ft. The stalkless flowers and leaves of Malva sylvestris are the most frequently used parts of traditional medicine to treat ailments, probably based on their high concentration of biologically active compounds. Tomoda et al. (1989) and Barros et al. (2010) report, respectively, that the active ingredients present in Malva sylvestris include mucilage, tannins, malvyn, malvidin, and the plant leaves are also a good source of nutraceuticals, including antioxidants (tocopherols, flavonoids, phenols, and carotenoids), unsaturated fatty acids (e.g. α-linolenic acid), and minerals. Numerous studies have shown that this plant has antimicrobial, anti-inflammatory, and antioxidant properties (Billeter et al. 1991; Pirbalouti et al. 2010).

The plant is a member of Equisetopsida class, Magnoliidae subclass, Rosanae superorder, Malvales order, Malvaceae family and Malva genus (Barros et al. 2010; Vandebroek et al. 2008; Garden 2010). When chewed, the flowers of M. sylvestris have a taste that is similar to that of mucilage, and they have practically no smell. The flowers are about 3–5 cm in width and feature an epicalyx on the end, with a length of no more than 20 mm for the rest of the stalk (Pljevljakušić et al. 2018). Their flowers are mainly composed of an epicalyx joined to elliptic-lanceolate sections positioned just below the calyx. These segments are shorter than the calyx. This part (calyx) comprises gamosepalous at the bases and five pubescent triangular lobes. Another component is a corolla that is 3 to 4 times the length of the calyx and has 5 wedge-shaped, serrated petals that are united to the stamen tube at the base.

Under the objective lens, many stamens, known as filaments, assemble into a stamina tube enclosed by tiny star-shaped and sparse, simple trichomes. In addition, numerous rumpled carpels, orbicular or often pubescent and enveloped in the stamen tube, are organised circularly around a core style that wraps up with multiple threadlike stigmas. Arayne et al. (2005) and Bonfill et al. (2006) reported that the epicalyx represents the main 3 to 7 partite in various cultivated varieties of M. sylvestris, the calyx represents the main 5 to 8 partite, and the corolla represents the main 5 to 10 partite in different cultivated varieties of M. sylvestris.

Malva sylvestris (Malvaceae) in traditional medicine dates back to around 3000 BC. Indeed, archaeological studies in Syria reveal some fossils of Malva sylvestris seeds in dental stones. This has been attributed by researchers in this field to the consumption of this plant as food but also because of its medicinal properties (Henry and Piperno 2008). This plant is characterised by simple, membranous, pubescent leaves that are velvety on both sides with long petioles. They have 3, 5, 7, or 9 shallow lobes and are palmar and orbicular to kidney-shaped in form. They have curved or sharp apexes, a tapered and razor-sharp underside, and a 7–15 cm diameter. Its venation is organised as an actinidrome with prominent and straight first-order veins, acute divergent for the second order and reticulate for the third. As for the last venation, it presents a marginal, incomplete form with veinlets and simple curves. The nipples, on the other hand, are large, polygonal in shape and show a frank development (Pljevljakušić et al. 2018; Batistuzzo et al. 2002) (Figs. 1 and 2).

A leaf from Malva sylvestris L., Malvaceae, with morphoanatomical features. (a) Overall aspects; (b) leaf architectural style with perfect areole and polygonal; (c) stomatal detail; (d) depiction of the mesophyll with non-glandular trichomes; (e) the overall aspects of the midrib; (f) glandular trichome; (g) non-glandular trichome; (h) stellar trichome; (i, j) epidermal cells of the adaxial and (k) overall aspect of the petiole (Batistuzzo et al. 2002)

Morpho‐anatomical features of powdered leaf from Malva sylvestris L., Malvaceae. (a) Part of the palisade cells with non‐glandular trichome; (b) stellar trichome; (c) druses of calcium oxalate; (d) adaxial surface showing the stomata and mucilaginous cell; (e) abaxial surface with the stellar trichome and mucilaginous cell; (f) non‐glandular trichome; (g) detail of the epidermis with glandular trichome (Batistuzzo et al. 2002)

Several studies report the weediness of Malva (Lavina et al. 1996; Zand et al. 2010) as it impedes the growth of many food plants except cereal crops, where no impact has been observed (Dutoit et al. 2007). M. sylvestris is a plant that can grow under different conditions, particularly on rocky soils, at varying pH and concentrations of nitrogen, phosphorus, and organic carbon (Godefroid et al. 2007). Its roots can firmly retain ions such as P, K, N and Mg when associated with tomatoes and beans during cultivation (Qasem 1992).

Scarification is the most effective method of germination, in addition to pollination by numerous insects that encourage the sustenance and propagation of M. sylvestris (Comba et al. 1999; Carreck and Williams 2002). The symbiotic relationship between Malva and many other organisms has been demonstrated. Indeed, Pappu et al. (2009) report in their work that Malva sylvestris represents the best host of Aphis gossypii compared to cotton and okra. Numerous microbes, including Cucumber Mosaic Virus, Cercospola malvcola, Tospovirus, Haritalodes derogatus, Malvapion Malvae, and Meloidogyne spp., might be added to this list (Pappu et al. 2009). Bees, butterflies, and hoverflies benefit from nectar from this plant’s nectar-secreting flowers (Comba et al. 1999). Treatment with herbicides can eliminate this plant, but this would negatively affect the economy and the environment (Qasem 1996; Jansen et al. 2000; Zand et al. 2010). Pinto et al. (2010) demonstrate the fungicidal capacities of methanolic extracts of M. sylvestris against Colletotrichum lindemuthianum, which is responsible for bean anthracnose. In the same vein, Madejón et al. (2006); Boojar and Goodarzi (2007) found that the roots of Malva sylvestris may help stabilise the soil by mitigating the harmful effects of copper by exclusion, as well as by regenerating degraded lands and copper-rich soils. In addition to this, Anastasakis et al. (2009) estimate that its mucilage may purify effluent by lowering turbidity by 96.3 to 97.4% in secondary effluent (12 mg/l of mucilage) and by 61 to 66% (62.5 mg/l of mucilage) in organic effluent.

Other research has also proven its ability to defend against ultraviolet radiation. Indeed, the leaves of M. sylvestris have the potential to transform the ozone contained in the apoplastic fluid surrounding the cells into superoxide radicals (O2—) in a brief period. This reactive oxygen formed around the veins produces apparent lesions that are then disseminated heterogeneously throughout the whole leaf surface, establishing this plant as a bio-indicator of ozone pollution. The plant’s susceptibility to ozone can have negative consequences for other crops in the nearby area, as it causes untimely senescence of the leaves, which results in a significant reduction in leaf growth and biomass, and in addition to seed quantity, flowering weight, and seedling growth, and hence plant development (Bergmann et al. 1995; Bender et al. 2006). On the other hand, the structural diversity of the rhizosphere’s main bacterial population is not appreciably affected by this prolonged exposure to the gas ozone (Dohrmann and Tebbe 2006).

Various studies have established the significance of M. sylvestris in traditional medicine. Many pharmacological studies have shown that M. sylvestris flower and leaf extracts can be used in treating various ailments, including digestive problems, dermatological diseases, menstrual pain, urological dysfunction, respiratory problems, gastrointestinal problems, abdominal pain and diarrhoea, respiratory infections, oral diseases (Leporatti and Corradi 2001; Cornara et al. 2009; Gasparetto et al. 2012a).

In many regions of the world, this plant is extensively utilised in traditional medicine (Tuttolomondo et al. 2014; Guarrera 2005). Elsagh et al. (2015) report in their clinical study the functional anticonstipative capacity of Malva sylvestris. Similarly, Conforti et al. (2008b); Sleiman and Daher (2009); Prudente et al. (2013b) and Prudente et al. (2017) report in their respective studies on the anti-inflammatory capacity to reduce topical inflammation of aqueous and hydroethanolic extracts of the aerial and leaf parts of Malva sylvestris in animal models. As established by some researchers, the composition of scopoletin, quercetin, and, in particular, malvidin 3-glucoside might account for the differences in anti-inflammatory activities.

According to Martins et al. (2014), the anti-inflammatory ability of Malva in vitro is connected to the amount of scopoletin, caffeic acid, and ferulic acid present in the plant’s composition. In addition, other authors (Idolo et al. 2010; El Beyrouthy et al. 2008; Pollio et al. 2008; Scherrer et al. 2005) have reported that compounds with anti-inflammatory properties in Malva, primarily those against gingivitis, abscesses, and dental pain, can be found in the plant’s leaves, flowers, and aerial parts (Idolo et al. In addition to this, Idolo et al. (2010), Cornara et al. (2009), and Lardos (2006) have shown the ability of leaves and blossoms to cure urological disorders, insect bites, burns, boils, and ulcerative wounds, among other conditions. In addition, Farina et al. (1995) proved the ability of a liquid extract of the flowers and leaves of Malva sylvestris to cure coughing and inflammation of the mucous membranes in treating cough and inflammation of the mucous membranes.

Modern literature attributes the high intake of Malva to its medicinal qualities, which include anti-ulcerogenic, antioxidant and anticancer characteristics, skin tissue integrity and anti-inflammatory properties (Quave et al. 2008). Ballero et al. (2001); Classen and Blaschek (2002) demonstrate in their studies that most of their therapeutic and pharmacological properties are attributed to the flowers and leaves because of their richness in flavonoids and mucilages.

It should be noted that Malva sylvestris is a medicinal plant consumed for its laxative, purifying, toning, and protective properties, particularly in the stomach (Guarrera 2003; Ishtiaq et al. 2007). It is most often consumed in the form of soup and salad. Its association with other medicinal plants potentiates the expected effect against ce