This study focused on the effect of CAPE on inflammation control and VEGF induction in HDPCs. The aim of this study was to investigate the effects of CAPE on inflammatory cytokines and VEGF production in HDPCs to apply CAPE to a more ideal dental pulp protective agent.
2. Materials and Methods 2.1. Cell CultureClinically healthy dental pulp tissue samples were obtained from non-carious teeth extracted for orthodontic reasons under informed consent at Tokushima University Hospital, Tokushima, Japan. The investigation was performed with the approval and compliance of the Ethics Committee of Tokushima University Hospital (No. 329). HDPCs were cultured in Dulbecco’s Modified Eagle’s Medium (Gibco, Grand Island, MI, USA) containing 10% fetal bovine serum (Sigma-Aldrich, St. Louis, MO, USA), 100 U/mL of penicillin and 100 μg/mL streptomycin (Gibco) at 37 °C in a humidified atmosphere of 5% CO2. Confluent monolayers were stimulated at passages 5 to 9.
2.2. ReagentsCAPE was purchased from Tocris Bioscience (Bristol, UK). Pam3CSK4 (TLR2 ligand) was purchased from InvivoGen (San Diego, CA, USA). Recombinant TNF-α was obtained from Peprotech (Rocky Hill, NJ, USA).
2.3. Cell Proliferation AssayHDPCs were treated with different concentrations of CAPE for 24 h and evaluated for cell proliferation activity using Cell Counting Kit-8 (DOJINDO, Tokyo, Japan). Treatment with 0.1% Triton X-100 (Wako, Osaka, Japan) was used as a positive control. Results are expressed as fold-change values relative to unstimulated control samples.
2.4. Enzyme-Linked Immunosorbent Assay (ELISA)The concentrations of VEGF and CXCL10 in the cell culture supernatants were determined using enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay (ELISA) kits (Duo Set ELISA Development System; R&D Systems, Minneapolis, MN, USA) in accordance with the manufacturer’s instructions.
2.5. Western Blot AnalysisTo determine the effect of CAPE on MAPKs’ phosphorylation of signal transduction molecules, Western blot analysis was performed. HDPCs were treated with CAPE for 15, 30 or 60 min and collected in RIPA lysis buffer (Santa Cruz Biotechnology, Dallas, TX, USA). The protein concentrations in lysates were quantified with a bicinchoninic acid protein assay kit (Sigma-Aldrich). An equal amount of protein was then loaded onto a 4–15% sodium dodecyl sulfate-polyacrylamide gel electrophoresis (SDS-PAGE) gel (Bio-Rad Laboratories, Hercules, CA, USA), followed by electrotransfer to a polyvinylidene difluoride membrane. The membrane was incubated with phospho-p38 MAPK antibody (Cell Signaling Technology, Danvers, MA, USA), phospho-extracellular signal-regulated kinase (ERK) antibody (Cell Signaling Technology), phospho-stress-activated protein kinase (SAP)/c-Jun N-terminal kinase (JNK) antibody (Cell Signaling Technology), p38 MAPK antibody (Cell Signaling Technology), ERK antibody (Cell Signaling Technology) and SAP/JNK antibody (Cell Signaling Technology).
The protein bands were visualized by incubation with horseradish-peroxidase-conjugated secondary antibody (Sigma-Aldrich), followed by detection using the use of ECL Prime Western Blotting Detection System (GE Healthcare, Buckinghamshire, UK). Actin levels were also assessed using an anti-actin antibody (Sigma-Aldrich) as control. The band density of blots was measured using ImageJ software (version 1.53t, US National Institutes of Health, Bethesda, MD, USA).
2.6. Statistical AnalysisAll statistical analysis was determined by using the unpaired Student’s t test. Differences were considered significant when the probability value was less than 5% (p < 0.05).
4. DiscussionA previous study reported that VEGF was found in normal healthy dental pulps with no signs of inflammation, suggesting that VEGF was being locally produced in dental pulp tissue [11]. Moreover, in irreversible pulpitis, the expression of VEGF was strongly positive in the cells constituting the inflammatory infiltrate, whereas it was slightly, but significantly, decreased in the stromal cells [11]. VEGF is shown to enhance ALP activity and promote reparative dentin formation in HDPCs [10]. It has been reported that TNF-α do not affect VEGF production in dental pulp cells [20]. In addition, another study found that lipopolysaccharide (LPS) or TNF-α alone does not increase VEGF secretion, but LPS and TNF-α together had a synergistic effect on VEGF expression in HDPCs [21]. The findings of their previous reports except simultaneous stimulation are similar to the present study. Recently, we first demonstrated upregulated production of VEGF by CAPE in odontoblastic KN-3 cells [19]. In this study, VEGF production by CAPE was induced regardless of the presence of Pam3CSK4 or TNF-α on HDPCs. This result suggests that CAPE can possibly be applicable to dental pulp in inflammatory milieu.MAPKs are a group of serine/threonine protein kinases that are universally expressed in mammalian cells, and have been implicated in many physiologic processes, including cell proliferation, differentiation, and death [22,23]. In this study, we confirmed that CAPE induced the phosphorylation of p38 MAPK, ERK and SAP/JNK in HDPCs. The effects of CAPE on MAPKs phosphorylation were investigated by several previous studies with various cultured cells. It was shown that CAPE induced the phosphorylation of p38 MAPK and ERK but not JNK in a rat C6 glioma cell [24]. CAPE also increased the phosphorylation of ERK, JNK and p38 MAPK to modulate the growth differentiation factor 15 (an anti-tumor gene of bladder cancer) expressions in bladder carcinoma cells [25]. In this way, the effects of CAPE on MAPKs’ activation may be dependent on cell types. In a previous study, MAPKs were differentially activated by dietary chemopreventive compounds such as green tea polyphenols and involved in the transcriptional activation of antioxidant response element (ARE)-mediated reporter gene [26]. Further study will be required to investigate the detailed mechanism for the effects of CAPE on HDPCs.When dentin is destroyed by dental caries, dental pulp cells are attacked by caries-related bacteria and bacterial products, and thus they produce pro-inflammatory mediators such as cytokines leading to pulpitis [27,28]. Previous reports have shown that various inflammatory cytokines are expressed in dental pulp and play an important role in the development and enhancement of dental pulp inflammation [29]. CXCL10, a chemokine for recruiting activated helper T cells, is induced by pro-inflammatory stimuli and produced by dental pulp cells, which can participate in the dental pulp immune responses. In this study, we focused on the anti-inflammatory effect of CAPE, which is a bioactive substance of propolis, and investigated whether CAPE could be applied to the treatment of pulpitis. Consequently, CAPE suppressed the production of CXCL10 in HDPCs exposed to Pam3CSK4 or TNF-α. There have been several papers mentioning the anti-inflammatory effects of CAPE. By way of example, it was shown that CAPE inhibited both TNF- and LPS-induced CXCL10 production in mouse intestinal epithelial cells [18]. In another study, CAPE inhibited the expression of interleukin (IL)-6, monocyte chemotactic protein (MCP)-1, and intercellular adhesion molecule-1 (ICAM-1) induced by IL-1β in corneal fibroblasts [30]. Judging from these studies, CAPE is likely to have the ability of suppressing inflammation on different types of cells. We found that CAPE had no cytotoxicity for HDPCs up to 10 μg/mL by a cell proliferation assay. These findings suggest that CAPE has an anti-inflammatory effect on HDPCs in the environment of inflammation without cytotoxic impact and may be useful for the treatment of pulpitis.For the success of vital pulp therapy, to eliminate infected bacteria and to control dental pulp inflammation is very important. It was recently reported that CAPE had antimicrobial activity against cariogenic bacteria such as Streptococcus mutans, Streptococcus sobrinus, Actinomyces viscosus, and Lactobacillus acidophilus [31]. Moreover, CAPE inhibited the formation of S. mutans biofilms and their metabolic activity in mature biofilms [31]. Therefore, the application of CAPE to treatment for pulpitis might be expected to eliminate a bacterial irritant directly. Our findings suggest that CAPE has the potential to be an effective material for vital pulp therapy leading to tissue regeneration via the enhancement of VEGF production. Further study using the disease model of an animal will be necessary to determinate that CAPE is applicable to treatment for dental pulp inflammation.
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