Bioactive compounds, pharmacological actions and pharmacokinetics of Cupressus sempervirens

Antifungal effects and antibacterial

The assessment of ethanol’s antibacterial action, extracts of ethyl acetic acid and methanol from the aerial parts of Cupressus sempervirens against different plants including Klebsiella pneumonia (MTCC618), Staphylococcus aureus (ATCC6538), Bacillus subtilis (ATCC6633), Escherichia coli (ATCC15224), Pseudomonas aeruginosa (ATCC6643) and Salmonella typhimurium (ATCC13048). These extracts’ concentration was utilized (1, 2, 3, 5, 7.5, 10, 12.5 and 15 mg/ml). All Cupressus sempervirens extract administered showed a dose-dependent inhibition of bacterial development against all microbes examined (Boukhris et al. 2012) which were six bacterial strains Proteus vulgaris, Bacillus subtilis, Salmonella typhi (Gram-negative), Staphylococcus aureus (Gram-positive), Escherichia coli, Pseudomonas aeruginosa and parasitic species of Aspergillus niger and Candida albicans. Cupressus sempervirens was used to assess the bactericidal and antifungal action of Cupressus sempervirens chloroform and water extracts’ high intensity against Gram positive microbes (inhibition zone of 9–12 mm and 9–14 mm and chloroform and water extracts respectively) and reduced action against Gram negative microorganisms (zone of inhibition 1–6 mm and 1–5 mm water extract and chloroform extract). In any case, the water extract did not show much potency against growths; however, the chloroform extract displayed slight action against Candida albicans (3 mm) (Hassanzadeh Khayyat et al. 2005). Cupressus sempervirens leaves bactericidal activity of ethanolic, ethyl acetic acid and methanolic extract was accessed using agar well diffusion technique against six bacteria (Bacillus subtilis, Escherichia coli, Staphylococcus aureus, Salmoniae and Klebsiella pneumonia, Pseudomonas aeruginosa). Methanolic extract shows huge antimicrobial activities followed by the ethyl acetate and ethanol extracts. The methanolic extract demonstrated greatest inhibitory activity against B. subtilis, K. pneumonia and S. aureus. The ethanolic extract showed its action against P. aeruginosa, while the ethyl acetic acid extract of Cupressus sempervirens demonstrated a more prominent inhibitory action against E. coli and S. typhimurium (Zhang et al. 2012). The antimicrobial activities of essential oil were against Gram positive bacteria and other bacteria like (Bacillus cereus, Staphylococcus aureus, Enterococcus \feacalis, Serratia marcescens) and Gram negative (Proteosa vulgarommonis aeruginella, Escherichia coli, Klebsiella pneumonia indica, Aeromonas hydrophila); the inhibitory zones have diameter of 4 to 12 mm, with MBC and MIC values ​​ranging somewhere in the range of 62.5 and 250 μg/ml. In spite of the fact that Cupressus sempervirens methanolic extract firmly restricted the progression of many bacteria growth (Ismail et al. 2013a). Studies were carried out to find out the antimicrobial action of Cupressus sempervirens essential oil against ten fungi and bacteria (Bacillus subtilis, Escherichia coli, Pseudomonas aeruginosa, Staphylococcus aureus Halomonas prolong, Aspergillus alma, Salmonella typhimurium, Enterococcus hirae). The outcome revealed that Cupressus sempervirens oil restricted the bacteria development, yeast and filamentous growths. The MCC and MIC values ​​showed that the Cupressus sempervirens essential oil remained exceptionally powerful. Therefore, the MIC/MCC proportion affirmed antibacterial and anti-fungi essential oil action. In spite of the fact that the antimicrobial action of Cupressus sempervirens essential oils was evident against Gram-positive compared to Gram-negative bacteria (Toroglu, 2007). The inhibition zones are 2 and 4 µl/circle of Cupressus sempervirens essential oil against the microorganisms examined ( separately): Staphylococcus aureus 7 and 8; Micrococcus luteus 10 and 13; Mycobacterium simegmatis 10 and 11; Bacillus megaterium 7 and 9; Enterococcus faecalis 7 and 9; Streptococcus faecalis 7 and 9; Saccharomyces cerevisiae 9 and 10; Bacillus brevis 7 and 8; Pseudomonas pyocyaneus 9 and 11; Aeoromonas hydrophila 7 and 10; Yersinia enterolitica 8 and 9; and Klyveromyces fragilis 15 and 17 mm (Amri et al. 2013). Cupressus sempervirens essential oil was inspected in three microscopic organisms (Bifidobacterium lactis, Micrococcus luteus and Escherichia coli) and seven parasites (Aspergillus flavous, Aspergillus niger, Aspergillus fumigatus, Fusarium oxysporium, Fusarium solani, Camposipterus and Penicillium digitatum). Essential oil inhibition zones for 96 h of brooding against Bifidobacterium lactis were 24.05 mm, Escherichia coli was 16.11 mm, while Micrococcus luteus was 11.90 mm. Concerning essential oil fungicidal action inhibition zones were 5.7 mm against F. solani and 29 mm against P. digitatum following 96 h of incubation (Al-Othman et al. 2012). Compounds, like, diterpenes, 13-abietatrien-12-one, 6-deoxytaxodione (11-hydroxy-7, 9 (11) taxodione) separated from the cones (products) of Cupressus sempervirens indicated high bactericidal action (IC50 is 0.80 and 0.85 μg/ml) against methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus (Tumen et al. 2012). The antifungal action of Cupressus sempervirens essential oil tried against 8 organisms from cultured media was analyzed in an in vitro test (Fusarium culmorum, Fusarium oxysporum, Fusarium equisiti, Fusarium verticillioides, Fusarium nygamai, Botrytis cinerea, var. Nivale var. Alternaria sp and Microdochium nivale), and all Cupressus sempervirens essential oil tests demonstrated astounding antifungal control against all growths examined (Hassanzadeh Khayyat et al. 2005). The Cupressus sempervirens var. Dupreziana leaves essential oils were analyzed for antifungal activities against 10 types of agricultural fungi (Fusarium culmorum, Gibberella avenacea, Microdochium nivale, Fusarium oxysporum, Fusarium verticillioides, Fusarium subglutinans, Rhizoctonia solani, Alternaria culmorum, Fusarium nygamai and Fusarium alternamorum). Antifungal in vitro tests were tried on the oils, and the effect revealed a serious growth inhibition of 10 plant pathogenic fungi (Emami et al. 2009).

Antiviral effect

Earlier investigations have been steered to assess the influence on herpes infections (HSV-1) that are treated with Cupressus sempervirens ethanolic extracts of Cupressus sempervirens var. cereiformis and C. sempervirens var. horizontalis. Herpes infection (HSV-1) contamination was performed on HeLa cell monolayers to assess the antiviral property of plant extract under a light magnifying lens utilizing the hematoxylin and eosin technique. Test outcomes were estimated against acyclovir, a positive control. As indicated by the outcomes, antiviral properties against the HSV-1 infection were seen in the three plants. The strongest extract was that of C. sempervirens. Of the different parts tried, the organic product extract was appeared to have the highest anti-HSV action (92). The in vitro assessment done indicated that a small amount of proanthocyanidin polymer (MW 1500–2000 Daltons) was extracted from Cupressus sempervirens L. (Amouroux et al. 1998).

Antiparasitic and insecticidal effect

Antiparasitic activities of the ethanolic extract of Cupressus sempervirens powder cones, gathered in Oxford, Mississippi, were examined. The utilization of centrifugal slim layer chromatography caused the isolation of many 13-abietatrien-12-one), 6-deoxytaxodione (11-hydroxy-7,9 (11), diterpenes, taxodione, sugiol and ferruginol. 6-Deoxytaxodione (11-hydroxy-7, 9 (11), 13-abietatrien-12-one) of which taxodione indicated a solid antileishmanial action with values ​​of a fraction—greatest inhibitory focus (IC50) of 0.077 μg/ml and 0.025 μg/ml, separately, against promastigotes of Leishmania donovani, compared with those of the standard antileishmanial drugs, pentamidine (IC50 1.62 μg/ml) and amphotericin B (IC50 0.11 μg/ml) (Tumen et al. 2012). Ethanol, acetone and crude oil ether extracts from Egyptian Cupressus sempervirens leaves action against third instar larva of the mosquito Culex pipiens were assessed. The outcome demonstrated that crude oil ether extract was more effective than the acetone and ethanolic extract, in this way indicating their antiparasitic property. The toxicity examined, in light of the LC50 esteems, were: ethanolic (LC50 263.6 ppm) > acetone extract (LC50 104.3 ppm) > crude oil ether separates (LC50 37.8 ppm). A huge decrease was seen in both the level of pupae and the growth of the adults although all the extracts demonstrated a delayed lethal effect in pupae and grown-ups after larval treatment. Furthermore, diverse degrees of morphogenic deviations from the norm were seen in the young and adult stages (Moussa et al. 2011).

Antioxidant effect

The methanol and chloroform extracts from Cupressus sempervirens leaf were examined to ascertain antioxidant action utilizing the DPPH assay. Methanol extract action (50 μg/ml) against radicals was 65% unlike the chloroform extract (50 μg/ml) which is 6% (Asgary et al. 2013). The antioxidant action of fresh leaves of Cupressus sempervirens by checking test of nitric oxide was 1.17 (mg quercetin/g of extract), reducing power test was 2.85 (mg of ascorbic acid/g of extract); via metal chelation the antioxidant action of two varieties of extracts was tried utilizing 2,2-diphenyl-1-picrylhydrazyl (DPPH) and N, N-dimethyl-p-phenylenediamine (DMPD) radical scavenging action, chelating capacity of metals along with ferric-(FRAP) and lessening antioxidant intensity of phosphorus-molybdenum (PRAP). The antioxidant activities test was done at 2000 µg/ml. From the exploration discovering, there was variety in antioxidant activities because of the technique utilized. For example, Cupressus sempervirens ethyl acetate cone extract var. horizontalis indicated greatest DPPH radical scavenging activities (87.53 ± 0.17%), while just six of the extracts had the capacity to displace the radical of DMPD with a range of 6.06 ± 0.23 and 30.34 ± 0 69%. The resultant effects of the FRAP test show that Cupressus sempervirens cone acetone extract var. horizontalis demonstrated the absorbance value at its peak showing elevated antioxidant action, despite that the extracts commonly had low action in the PRAP examined. Methanolic extract of the leaf of Cupressus sempervirens var. horizontalis has the elevated antioxidant action. The cone and leaf methanol extract lack metal chelating limit in the metal chelation test. Conversely, Cupressus sempervirens ethyl acetate foliar extracts var. horizontalis (75.86 ± 0.33%) and Cupressus sempervirens var. pyramidalis (77.07 ± 3.22%) indicated the maximum activity in this test. Cupressus sempervirens essential oil was examined for its antioxidant property by estimating the scavenging effect of the radical on 2,2-diphenyl-1-picrylhydrazyl (DPPH) and utilizing 2,2′-azinobis (3-ethylbenzothiazoline-6-sulfonate) (ABTS) paper. The test result showed elevated antioxidant activities (2.14 mM and 7.7 μg/ml and Trolox for the ABTS and DPPH tests, separately) matched with BHT (Toroglu 2007). After extraction of the essential oils, assessment of the antioxidant and antagonistic effect to glycation action of Cupressus sempervirens var. horizontalis branch and fruit oils was done. Cupressus sempervirens var. horizontalis twigs and other product were accessed for essential oils isolation by the use of steam refining technique. A gas chromatography–mass spectrometry technique was utilized to assess the quantity of essential oils. While trying to assess the antioxidant effects of oils at various fixations (180, 220 and 260 μg/ml), the peroxyl radical-interceded red platelet hemolysis (RBC) and linoleic acid peroxidation test and test were utilized. The peroxidation of linoleic acid for 4 h was assessed every incubation hour. The anti-glycation action of the oils at 600, 400, 200 µg/ml was observed utilizing glycation surveys for hemoglobin and insulin. Hemoglobin glycation was restrained both by the twigs (54, 62.6 and 44.8%) and by the natural products (48.5, 62.8, 41.0%) at 600, 400, 200 μg/ml of oil respectively. The inhibition rates of insulin glycation include (73.8, 69.2, 66.1%) that of twig oil and (81.5, 76.9, 80.0%) that of oil of natural products at 600, 400, 200 μg/ml, respectively. The red platelet hemolysis was further inhibited by twig oil (15.0, 38.5, 49.9%) and natural product oil (25, 38.6, 45.9%) at 260, 220, 180 μg/ml, respectively. Lastly, there is decreased linoleic acid peroxidation by the oils which arrived at its greatest point after 4 h for the two twigs (53.4, 35.6, 39.5%) and natural products (59.8, 58.6, 47.5%) at 260, 220, 180 μg/ml of oil separately; 600 and 400 µg/ml were assessed utilizing insulin and hemoglobin glycation surveys. The glycation of hemoglobin was inhibited both by the twigs (44.8, 62.6 and 54.0%) and by the organic products and (48.5, 62.8, 41.0%) at 600, 400 and 200 μg/ml of oil respectively; the inhibition rates of insulin glycation were (73.8, 69.2, 66.1%) for twig oil and (81.5, 76.9, 80.0%) for organic product oil 600, 400 and 200 μg/ml, respectively. The twig oil inhibited red platelets hemolysis by (15.0, 38.5 and 49.9%) including natural product oil (25.0, 38.6 and 45.9%) at 260, 220, 180 μg/ml, respectively. To conclude, linoleic acid peroxidation was lessened by the oil; after 4 h the greatest point was reached for the two twigs (53.4, 35.6 and 39.5%) and also for organic products (59.8, 58.6 and 47.5%) at 260, 220 and 180 μg/ml of oil individually. (Ali et al. 2012). The antioxidant properties of Cupressus sempervirens leaves hydroethanolic extract were evaluated in vitro, and comparison was made with ascorbic acid and also the hepatoprotective activity in vivo in a paracetamol-induced hepatotoxicity rat model. From the in vitro study, the extract was shown to contain high volume of phenolic compounds including flavonoids; this can be linked to the antioxidant potential in various rat models. The study was done in vivo for 4 weeks; pretreatments with silymarin (100 mg/kg/day, po) or extract (250 mg/kg/day, po) or) show the safety index in normal rats and hepatoprotective action against toxicity of paracetamol (4 g/kg bw, po) (Loizzo et al. 2008).

Anticancer effect

Various compounds from plants have been shown to have anti-cancer properties either on cell line model or rat model with great anti-proliferative potential (Teibo et al. 2021a, b). With the assistance of the sulforhodamine B examined, the essential oil of Cupressus sempervirens sp. Pyramidalis, the antiproliferative action of was inspected in nephridial adenocarcinoma cells and C32 amelanotic melanoma cells. The leaf oil of Cupressus sempervirens ssp. Pyramidalis showed the maximum cytotoxic action with an IC50 estimation of 104.90 microg/ml against C32 (Verma et al. 2014). The proliferation of BPH stromal cells in humans was inhibited by the Cupressus sempervirens (CS) ethanolic extract of the fruits of the soil activity given in its part rich in diterpene, solvent in chloroform. Eight essential diterpenes were gotten indicating mild to strong action with the strongest diterpene (labda-8 (17), 12,14-trien-19-oic acid) showed an IC50 of 37.5 μM (with antiproliferative action against BPH stroma cells in humans). There was a significant inhibition of Stat-3 enactment (phosphorylation) in BPH stromal cells and inhibited androgen-delicate KLK3/PSA transamination in LNCaP cells TMPRSS2 qualities. The CS fraction in acid12, 14-trien-19-oico, labda-8 (17), inhibited rat model prostatic hyperplasia thereby causing TUNEL marking in stromal cells with lower articulations of bcl portion—2/bax, IGF-I, TGF-ß and PCNA (Donya and Ibrahim 2012). A strong cytotoxic activity of taxodione disengaged from Cupressus sempervirens cones (natural products) was monitored. Utilizing the trial rat model, paracetamol was utilized to induce liver toxicity in rats, Cupressus sempervirens hydroethanolic extract were used to find out the hepatoprotective and anticancer activities of while using silymarin as reference agent. A 4-week study from previous researches has used silymarin (50 mg/kg/day, po) or hydroethanolic extract (250 mg/kg/day, po) or) showing hepatoprotective activities compared to one toxic dose of paracetamol (4 g/kg bw) and a good profile in normal rats (Demetzos et al. 2003).

Hypolipidemic effect

Research on the lipid profile of the cone extract effect of Cupressus sempervirens (CSE) in Wistar rats was done with hypolipidemic effect. The extract orally administered caused a huge reduction in total serum cholesterol, which remain significant for a period of 6 weeks. After the beginning of treatment (p < 0.001), the animals were presented with lower cholesterol levels at (p < 0.05); there was a substantial decrease in serum fatty oils, contrasting 0 weeks and 6–24 weeks. It was seen that between the animals treated with CSE and the control there were no significant difference in fatty substance levels and HDL cholesterol level throughout the experiment (Ali et al. 2010).

Protective effect

Biochemical assays like total serum protein, creatinine, albumin, urea, LDH tests and histopathological assessments were performed to assess the curative effect against CCl4 hepatotoxicity utilizing Cupressus sempervirens extract. In female Wistar rat, one intraperitoneal administration of 10% CCl4 was done in olive oil (1 ml/kg body weight) (positive control), another group got CCl4 and were treated with Cupressus sempervirens extract thrice each week for 6 weeks and a group got CCl4 for about 6 weeks and were allowed to recover by themselves. After the experiment, all animals were sacrificed after which biochemical and histological parameters were assayed. There was a clear difference across all the groups. The rats treated with CCl4 and left for 6 weeks to recover on their own exhibited mild enhancements in the parameters studied. Administration of plant extract improved the altered biochemical parameters to a large extent. The histopathological evaluation of the liver and kidney of the group treated with Cupressus sempervirens was closely related to that of control groups (Koriem 2009). Four-week pretreatment with silymarin (50 mg/kg/day, po) or hydroethanolic extricate (250 mg/kg/day, po) showed good profile in normal rats; also, it indicated hepatoprotective action against the paracetamol toxicity (4 g/kg bw, po) as shown by a rapid decrease in DNA fragmentation and significant reduction in the level of chromosomal distortions in bone marrow cells (Koriem 2009). The assessment of Cupressus sempervirens flavonoids protective action (quercetin and rutin) against the toxicological effect of lead acetate on the liver was studied. Thirty male albino rats were distributed into five groups (six rats for each group). The control is group I; Group II got lead acetate of 0.5 mg/g in their feed for 60 days. Group III got 8 mg/100 g body weight of Cupressus sempervirens (lyophilized from methanol extract of seeds) 14 days before the administration of lead acetate. Group IV were given 0.3 mg/100 g of body weight of the flavonoid quercetin every day for 14 days before the administration of lead acetate; Group V were given flavonoid daily 0, 1 mg/100 g of body weight for 14 days before lead acetate. Lead acetate was found to cause elevated serum and tissue ALT, ALP, AST and tissue MDA, bilirubin, tissue and plasma NO, regardless of significant elevated serum cholesterol, fatty substances, LDL and HDL. Though, lead caused a significant reduction in all out serum and tissue protein, albumin/globulin proportion albumin, globulin, SOD and GPx in blood and tissue compared with the benchmark group. Treatment with methanolic extract of Cupressus sempervirens, quercetin and rutin for 14 days before lead acetate did not allow increase in parameters. In like manner, treatment with methanolic extract of Cupressus sempervirens and its flavonoids can increase the defensive activity against the poisonous effect of lead acetate (Aazza et al. 2011).

Anti-acetylcholinesterase effect

Assessment of inhibitory action of extracts of ethyl acetate, dichloromethane, acetone and methanol from Cupressus sempervirens var. horizontalis (CSH) and var. pyramidalis (CSP) cones and leaves was performed to counter acetylcholinesterase (AChE), tyrosinase (TYRO) and butyrylcholinesterase (BuChE). The extracts demonstrated mild to adequate cholinesterase inhibition at 200 µg/ml. The CSP cone dichloromethane extricate demonstrated the maximum inhibition (36.10 ± 1.45%) against AChE, while the greatest inhibition (40.01 ± 0.77%) against BuChE was done by the CSH leaf acetone extract (Fleming 2000). The Cupressus sempervirens essential oil was investigated as anti-acetylcholinesterase. It demonstrated that the inhibitory group of essential oil (IC50) was 0.2837 ± 0.0115 mg/ml (Khan et al. 2014).

Osteogenic effect

The validated model for osteogenic effect was assessed; this includes the alkaline phosphatase, and mineralization assay, osteogenic genes expression, osteoblast transcription factor and bone morphogenetic protein 2, in primary cultures of the calvarium extracted from newborn mice using four diterpenoids (sugiol, 15-acetoxy imbricatolic acid, transcommunic acid and imbricatolic acid). Among the four studied, it was observed that the dose of 1.0 mg/kg bw of sugiol showed osteoprotective effects significantly, but at the same dose there was not uterine estrogenicity. Additionally, there was an improvement of biomechanical properties, as demonstrated by increase energy, power and rigidity in the femoral bones in the group treated with sugiol compared to the Ovx animals that were untreated (Ulusal et al. 2006).

Anticoagulant and effect on the viability of isochemically challenged folds

Cone water extract pretreated with cypress prolonged the blend of endothelial-determined nitric oxide (eNO) in rats from endothelial cellular function in isolated aortic rings assessed in vitro. Also, it had anticoagulant properties. Because of these effects, their effect on the endurance of arbitrary augmentations of ischemic pivotal folds was analyzed. The previously treated group was treated for 7 days with 30% cypress cone water extract before a fold rise, another 3 days a short time later. The ischemic objective was a 6 × 7 cm islet epigastric supply route flap dependent on the inferior epigastric pedicle at the right. At the time of the conclusion of the research, hemodynamic factors, mean arterial pressure including the pulse rate were evaluated. Flap endurance and perfusion rates were assessed using laser Doppler flowmetry and microangiography. The aortic isometric pressure separated from the control and pretreated groups was extracted to mirror the vascular feedback. Dose–response connections to acetylcholine were resolved and placed side by side with the control group. Hemodynamic factors did not show any difference. In the group pretreated, micro angiograms caused prolonged angiogenesis, slender thickness and expanded folds’ perfusion (blood perfusion parts) in the proximal and distal parts (p < 0.05). The endothelium-derived nitric oxide-associated maximal unwinding (Emax) and EC50 approved for acetylcholine were notably higher in the pretreated group compared with the control. From the information, it was proposed isochemically tested rats pretreated with cypress water extracts build the suitability (Tumen et al. 2012).

Wound healing effect

The healing and mitigating effects of wounds were assessed from essential oils got from Cupressus cones. The linear incision and circular excision wound models were used to evaluate wound healing in vivo using hydroxyproline content assessment, then histopathological research. The regenerative potential was evaluated with Madecassol balm as control or standard. Likewise, the anti-inflammatory effect of oil was checked using acetic acid-induced capillary permeability test. Cupressus sempervirens var. horizontalis and Cupressus sempervirens var. pyramidalis essential oils did not bring about serious healing (Graziani et al. 1997).

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