The complex nature of human operant gambling behaviour involving slot games: Structural characteristics, verbal rules and motivation

ElsevierVolume 137, February 2023, 107540Addictive BehaviorsAbstract

Gambling behaviour is likely to be strongly influenced by operant learning principles. Most forms of gambling, and most notably slot machine play, follow a random ratio (RR) schedule of reinforcement that should lead to rapid and extinction-resistant behaviour. In this paper we highlight the caveats that need to be applied when generalising animal models of learning to human behaviour. Studies need to be cognisant of the role of verbal rules and cognitive appraisals of contingency; the ability for participants to self-modify important elements of reward schedules; potential differences between concurrent and longitudinal schedule preferences; and, the role of important human motivations in financial decision-making. In particular, we believe that operant approaches to gambling may need to incorporate a greater focus on FOMO (or the fear of missing out) as a motivational construct that may explain some of the observed patterns of behaviour, including riskier behaviours, on slot games. The implications of these observations for future research and harm minimisation are discussed.

Section snippetsOverview

In this paper, it will be argued that an understanding of basic operant learning principles is essential for understanding gambling behaviour. Basic schedules of reinforcement have long been recognised as factors that are likely to maintain gambling behaviour. However, as we will show in this paper, it will be important for gambling research to be cognisant of the complexities of human schedule responding and how this may deviate from traditional animal models. This is because humans apply

Operant explanations for gambling

Although gambling behaviour is understood to be influenced by a variety of psychological and social factors (Griffiths and Delfabbro, 2001, Petry, 2005, Porter and Ghezzi, 2006, Walker, 1992a), it is very likely that behavioural principles play a significant role in the maintenance of many forms of gambling behaviour (Mazur, 2016). As Skinner (1953) pointed out, most forms of gambling (and particularly slot games) offer a schedule of reinforcement that is able to maintain high rates of

Verbal rules and cognitive influences

It is generally recognised that it is often difficult to replicate the patterns of behaviour observed in animal studies (Bradshaw and Reed, 2012, Bradshaw et al., 2015). A principal reason given for this is that humans apply verbal rules and cognitive processes to the understanding of the schedule. Thus, whereas animal behaviour is thought to be principally contingency-shaped or induced, people will make assumptions about the ways in which their behaviour is related to the rewards. When humans

Modern computational and modelling approaches

In addition to the work above which has attempted to adapt the more traditional Skinnerian models of behaviour to encompass a wider range of behavioural phenomena, there are also modern computational and modelling approaches that study the behavioural manifestation of different neurological systems devoted to decision-making as opposed to more stimulus-driven habitual behaviour (Smith et al., 2021, Wyckmans et al., 2019). The first or goal-oriented system focuses principally upon the selection

Modifiable schedules and structural characteristics

Another very important difference between gambling and conventional laboratory schedules is that people are able to select their own schedules. Slot machine gambling is perhaps the best example. In these games, people place bets on whether certain combinations of symbols appear on certain pay-lines. Players can choose how many lines they play as well as how much they bet per line to achieve a total bet per spin amount. Many slot game choices are usually available (e.g., among some online

The role of motivation in operant schedules

Traditional operant conditioning approaches (Skinnerian work) do not usually consider the role of motivation in people’s behaviour. It is generally assumed that the principal purpose of behaviour is to generate rewards and that conditioning is maintained through the performance of behaviour that continues to generate reward. However, it would appear clear from behavioural evidence from the study of activities such as gambling on slot games that people’s behaviour is goal-oriented. In other

Summary

The principles of operant conditioning and schedules of reinforcement are undoubtedly important ways of understanding the highly persistent behaviour on many forms of gambling activity, but most notably: slot games. However, we believe that new frameworks may need to be developed that capture the additional features of human schedule-based behaviour which is not included in animal models (Fig. 2). These include: (a) the roles of verbal rules, cognitive biases and perceptions of contingency that

Author credit statement

PD produced the 1st draft of the paper. DK and JP provided critical feedback on the first draft and contributed content to the paper.

Author statement

All authors agree to being named on this paper and contributed to the paper.

Declaration of Competing Interest

The authors declare the following financial interests/personal relationships which may be considered as potential competing interests: PD and JP have received national and International industry and government funding to conduct studies into product risk assessment and harm minimization. DK has received funding from the State and Commonwealth government in Australia as well as the WHO.

References (68)D.C. Knill et al.The Bayesian brain: The role of uncertainty in neural coding and computation

Trends in Neuroscience

(2004)

C.A. Bradshaw et al.Relationship between contingency awareness and human performance on random ratio and random interval schedules

Learning and Motivation

(2012)

A. AmselPartial reinforcement effect on vigor and persistenceK.C. BerridgeFrom prediction error to incentive salience: Mesolimbic computation of reward motivation

European Journal of Neuroscience

(2012)

A. Blaszczynski et al.A pathways model of problem and pathological gambling

Addiction

(2002)

C. Bradshaw et al.Human performance on random ratio and random interval schedules, performance awareness and verbal instructions

Learning and Behavior

(2015)

E.J. CapaldiThe effect of different amounts of alternating partial reinforcement on resistance to extinction

American Journal of Psychology

(1951)

E. Coates et al.Predictors of return rate discrimination in slot machine play

Journal of Gambling Studies

(2014)

P.H. Delfabbro et al.Play dynamics on electronic gaming machines (EGMs): A conceptual review

Journal of Behavioral Addictions

(2019)

P.H. Delfabbro et al.Poker machine gambling: An analysis of within session characteristics

British Journal of Psychology

(1999)

P.H. Delfabbro et al.Predictors of irrational thinking in slot-machine gambling

Journal of Psychology

(2000)

M. Dickerson et al.On the determinants of persistent gambling behaviour: High frequency poker machine players

British Journal of Psychology

(1992)

M.J. Dixon et al.The allure of multi-line games in modern slot machines

Addiction

(2014)

M.J. Dixon et al.Losses disguised as wins in modern multi-line video slot machines

Addiction

(2010)

M.R. Dixon et al.Examining the roles of rule following, reinforcement, and pre-experimental histories on risk-taking behavior

The Psychological Record

(2000)

M.R. Dixon et al.An evaluation of response allocations to concurrently available slot machine simulations

Behavior Research Methods

(2006)

Donaldson, P., Langham, E., Rockloff, M. J., & Browne, M. (2016). Veiled EGM jackpots: The effects of hidden and...N. Dow-SchullAddiction by design

(2012)

T. Edsen et al.A large-scale prospective study of big wins and their relationship with future financial and time involvement in actual daily fantasy sports contests

Psychology of Addictive Behaviors

(2021)

A. Ejova et al.Erroneous gambling-related beliefs emerge from broader beliefs during problem-solving: A critical review

Thinking and Reasoning

(2020)

E. Fantino et al.Gambling: Sometimes unseemly; not what it seems

Analysis of Gambling Behavior

(2008)

C.B. Ferster et al.Schedules of reinforcement

(1957)

T. Frahn et al.Exposure to free-play modes in simulated online gaming increases risk-taking in monetary gambling

Journal of Gambling Studies

(2015)

C. Graydon et al.Gambling despite financial losses-the role of losses disguised as wins in multiple line slots

Addiction

(2019)

C. Graydon et al.Losses disguised as wins affect game selection on multiline slots

Journal of Gambling Behavior

(2011)

M.D. GriffithsFruit machine gambling: The importance of structural characteristics

Journal of Gambling Studies

(1993)

M.D. GriffithsThe role of cognitive bias and skill in fruit machine gambling

British Journal of Psychology

(1994)

M.D. Griffiths et al.The biopsychosocial approach to the study of gambling

eGambling The Electronic Journal of Gambling Issues (Feature article)

(2001)

E. Haruvy et al.The medium prizes paradox: Evidence from a simulated casino

The Journal of Risk and Uncertainty

(2001)

J. HawRandom-ratio schedule of reinforcement: The role of early wins and unreinforced trials

Journal of Gambling Issues

(2008)

J. HawThe relationship between reinforcement and gaming machine choice

Journal of Gambling Studies

(2008)

S.C. Hayes et al.Rule-governed behavior and sensitivity to changing consequences of responding

Journal of the Experimental Analysis of Behavior

(1986)

A. Hoon et al.Contextual control of slot-machine gambling: Replication and extension

Journal of Applied Behavior Analysis

(2008)

R. Hornsley et al.High-frequency gamblers show increased resistance to extinction following partial reinforcement

Behavioral Brain Research

(2012)

View full text

© 2022 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.

留言 (0)

沒有登入
gif