Falk E, Shah PK, Fuster V. Coronary plaque disruption. Circulation. 1995;92(3):657–71.

CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

Epstein SE, Quyymi AA, Bonow RO. Sudden cardiac death without warning Possible mechanisms and implications for screening asymptomatic populations. N Engl J Med. 1989;321(5):320–4.

CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

Grundy SM, Stone NJ, Bailey AL, Beam C, Birtcher KK, Blumenthal RS, et al. AHA/ACC/AACVPR/AAPA/ABC/ACPM/ADA/AGS/APhA/ASPC/NLA/PCNA Guideline on the management of blood cholesterol: a report of the American College of Cardiology/American Heart Association Task Force on Clinical Practice Guidelines. Circulation. 2019;139(25):e1082–143. This guideline statement provides specific recommendations for the use of coronary calcium screening for the consideration of statin therapy.

PubMed  Google Scholar 

Pasternak RC, Abrams J, Greenland P, Smaha LA, Wilson PW, Houston-Miller N. 34th Bethesda Conference: Task force #1–Identification of coronary heart disease risk: is there a detection gap? J Am Coll Cardiol. 2003;41(11):1863–74.

PubMed  Google Scholar 

Khot UN, Khot MB, Bajzer CT, Sapp SK, Ohman EM, Brener SJ, et al. Prevalence of conventional risk factors in patients with coronary heart disease. JAMA. 2003;290(7):898–904.

PubMed  Google Scholar 

Redberg RF, Vogel RA, Criqui MH, Herrington DM, Lima JA, Roman MJ. 34th Bethesda Conference: Task force #3–what is the spectrum of current and emerging techniques for the noninvasive measurement of atherosclerosis? J Am Coll Cardiol. 2003;41(11):1886–98.

PubMed  Google Scholar 

Blankenhorn DH, Stern D. Calcification of the coronary arteries. Am J Roentgenol. 1959;81:772–7.

CAS  Google Scholar 

Beadendkopf WG, Daoud AS, Love BM. Calcification of the coronary arteries and its relation to arteriosclerosis and myocardial infarction. Am J Roentgenol. 1964;92:865–71.

Google Scholar 

Warburton RK, Tampas JP, Soule AB, Taylor HC III. Coronary artery calcification: its relationship to coronary artery stenosis and myocardial infarction. Radiology. 1968;91:109–15.

CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

Rifkin RD, Parisi AF, Folland E. Coronary calcification in the diagnosis of coronary artery disease. Am J Cardiol. 1979;44:141–7.

CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

Hamby RI, Tabrah F, Wisoff BG, Hartstein ML. Coronary artery calcification: clinical implications and angiographic correlates. Am Heart J. 1974;87:565–70.

CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

Detrano R, Salcedo EE, Hobbs RE, Yiannikas J. Cardiac cine fluoroscopy as an inexpensive aid in the diagnosis of coronary artery disease. Am J Cardiol. 1986;57:1041–6.

CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

Agatston AS, Janowitz WR, Hildner FJ, Zusmer NR, Viamonte M Jr, Detrano R. Quantification of coronary artery calcium using ultrafast computed tomography. J Am Coll Cardiol. 1990;15(4):827–32.

CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

Detrano RC, Wong ND, Tang W, French WJ, Georgiou D, Young E, et al. Prognostic significance of cardiac cinefluoroscopy for coronary calcific deposits in asymptomatic high risk subjects. J Am Coll Cardiol. 1994;24(2):354–8.

CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

Tang W, Detrano RC, Brezden OS, Georgiou D, French WJ, Wong ND, et al. Racial differences in coronary calcium prevalence among high-risk adults. Am J Cardiol. 1995;75(16):1088–91.

CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

Greenland P, LaBree L, Azen SP, Doherty TM, Detrano RC. Coronary artery calcium score combined with Framingham score for risk prediction in asymptomatic individuals. JAMA. 2004;291(2):210–5.

CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

Wong ND, Kouwabunpat D, Vo AN, Detrano RC, Eisenberg H, Goel M, et al. Coronary calcium and atherosclerosis by ultrafast computed tomography in asymptomatic men and women: relation to age and risk factors. Am Heart J. 1994;127(2):422–30.

CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

Wong ND, Hsu JC, Detrano RC, Diamond G, Eisenberg H, Gardin JM. Coronary artery calcium evaluation by electron beam computed tomography and its relation to new cardiovascular events. Am J Cardiol. 2000;86(5):495–8.

CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

Kondos GT, Hoff JA, Sevrukov A, Daviglus ML, Garside DB, Devries SS, et al. Electron-beam tomography coronary artery calcium and cardiac events: a 37-month follow-up of 5635 initially asymptomatic low- to intermediate-risk adults. Circulation. 2003;107(20):2571–6.

PubMed  Google Scholar 

Shaw LJ, Raggi P, Schisterman E, Berman DS, Callister TQ. Prognostic value of cardiac risk factors and coronary artery calcium screening for all-cause mortality. Radiology. 2003;228(3):826–33.

PubMed  Google Scholar 

Budoff MJ, Shaw LJ, Liu ST, Weinstein SR, Mosler TP, Tseng PH, et al. Long-term prognosis associated with coronary calcification: observations from a registry of 25,253 patients. J Am Coll Cardiol. 2007;49(18):1860–70.

PubMed  Google Scholar 

Carr JJ, Nelson JC, Wong ND, McNitt-Gray M, Arad Y, Jacobs DR Jr, et al. Calcified coronary artery plaque measurement with cardiac CT in population-based studies: standardized protocol of Multi-Ethnic Study of Atherosclerosis (MESA) and Coronary Artery Risk Development in Young Adults (CARDIA) study. Radiology. 2005;234(1):35–43.

PubMed  Google Scholar 

Detrano RC, Anderson M, Nelson J, Wong ND, Carr JJ, McNitt-Gray M, et al. Coronary calcium measurements: effect of CT scanner type and calcium measure on rescan reproducibility–MESA study. Radiology. 2005;236(2):477–84.

PubMed  Google Scholar 

Bild DE, Detrano R, Peterson D, Guerci A, Liu K, Shahar E, et al. Ethnic differences in coronary calcification: the Multi-Ethnic Study of Atherosclerosis (MESA). Circulation. 2005;111(10):1313–20.

PubMed  Google Scholar 

Kanaya AM, Kandula NR, Ewing SK, Herrington D, Liu K, Blaha MJ, et al. Comparing coronary artery calcium among US South Asians with four racial/ethnic groups: the MASALA and MESA studies. Atherosclerosis. 2014;234(1):102–7.

CAS  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

Detrano R, Guerci AD, Carr JJ, Bild DE, Burke G, Folsom AR, et al. Coronary calcium as a predictor of coronary events in four racial or ethnic groups. N Engl J Med. 2008;358(13):1336–45.

CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

Budoff MJ, Young R, Burke G, Jeffrey Carr J, Detrano RC, Folsom AR, et al. Ten-year association of coronary artery calcium with atherosclerotic cardiovascular disease (ASCVD) events: the multi-ethnic study of atherosclerosis (MESA). Eur Heart J. 2018;39(25):2401–8. Shows the long-term prognostic significance of coronary calcium from the MESA study and its consistency between race/ethnic groups.

CAS  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

Polonsky TS, McClelland RL, Jorgensen NW, Bild DE, Burke GL, Guerci AD, Greenland P. Coronary artery calcium score and risk classification for coronary heart disease prediction. JAMA. 2010;303(16):1610–6.

CAS  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

Yeboah J, McClelland RL, Polonsky TS, Burke GL, Sibley CT, O’Leary D, et al. Comparison of novel risk markers for improvement in cardiovascular risk assessment in intermediate-risk individuals. JAMA. 2012;308(8):788–95.

CAS  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

Greenland P, Alpert JS, Beller GA, Benjamin EJ, Budoff MJ, Fayad ZA, et al. ACCF/AHA guideline for assessment of cardiovascular risk in asymptomatic adults: a report of the American College of Cardiology Foundation/American Heart Association Task Force on Practice Guidelines 2010 ACCF/AHA guideline for assessment of cardiovascular risk in asymptomatic adults: a report of the American College of Cardiology Foundation/American Heart Association Task Force on Practice Guidelines. Circulation. 2010;122(25):e584-636.

PubMed  Google Scholar 

McClelland RL, Jorgensen NW, Budoff M, Blaha MJ, Post WS, Kronmal RA, et al. 10-year coronary heart disease risk prediction using coronary artery calcium and traditional risk factors: derivation in the MESA (Multi-Ethnic Study of Atherosclerosis) with validation in the HNR (Heinz Nixdorf Recall) study and the DHS (Dallas Heart Study). J Am Coll Cardiol. 2015;66(15):1643–53.

CAS  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

Carr JJ, Jacobs DR Jr, Terry JG, Shay CM, Sidney S, Liu K, et al. Association of coronary artery calcium in adults aged 32 to 46 years with incident coronary heart disease and death. JAMA Cardiol. 2017;2(4):391–9.

PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

Javaid A, Dardari ZA, Mitchell JD, Whelton SP, Dzaye O, Lima JAC, et al. Distribution of coronary artery calcium by age, sex, and race among patients 30–45 years old. J Am Coll Cardiol. 2022;79(19):1873–86. Describes the distribution of CAC among the largest pooled cohort of young adults providing age-sex-race-based percentiles.

CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

Kronmal RA, McClelland RL, Detrano R, Shea S, Lima JA, Cushman M, et al. Risk factors for the progression of coronary artery calcification in asymptomatic subjects: results from the Multi-Ethnic Study of Atherosclerosis (MESA). Circulation. 2007;115(21):2722–30.

PubMed  Google Scholar 

Budoff MJ, Young R, Lopez VA, Kronmal RA, Nasir K, Blumenthal RS, et al. Progression of coronary calcium and incident coronary heart disease events: MESA (Multi-Ethnic Study of Atherosclerosis). J Am Coll Cardiol. 2013;61(12):1231–9.

CAS  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

Wong ND, Nelson JC, Granston T, Bertoni AG, Blumenthal RS, Carr JJ, et al. Metabolic syndrome, diabetes, and incidence and progression of coronary calcium: the Multiethnic Study of Atherosclerosis study. JACC Cardiovasc Imaging. 2012;5(4):358–66.

PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

Kanaya AM, Vittinghoff E, Lin F, Kandula NR, Herrington D, Liu K, et al. Incidence and progression of coronary artery calcium in south Asians compared with 4 race/ethnic groups. J Am Heart Assoc. 2019;8(2):e011053.

CAS  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

Bulugahapitiya U, Siyambalapitiya S, Sithole J, Idris I. Is diabetes a coronary risk equivalent? Systematic review and meta-analysis Diabet Med. 2009;26(2):142–8.

CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

Wong ND, Glovaci D, Wong K, et al. Global cardiovascular disease risk assessment in United States adults with diabetes. Diab Vasc Dis Res. 2012;9(2):146–52.

PubMed  Google Scholar 

Wong ND, Sciammarella MG, Polk D, et al. The metabolic syndrome, diabetes, and subclinical atherosclerosis assessed by coronary calcium. J Am Coll Cardiol. 2003;41:1547.

CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

Hoff JA, Quinn L, Sevrukov A, Lipton RB, Daviglus M, Garside DB, et al. The prevalence of coronary artery calcium among diabetic individuals without known coronary artery disease. J Am Coll Cardiol. 2003;41(6):1008–12.

CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

Malik S, Budoff MJ, Katz R, et al. Impact of subclinical atherosclerosis on cardiovascular disease events in individuals with metabolic syndrome and diabetes: the multi-ethnic study of atherosclerosis. Diabetes Care. 2011;34(10):2285–90.

PubMed