Smolen JS, Aletaha D, McInnes IB. Rheumatoid arthritis. Lancet. 2016;388(10055):2023–38.

Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

Ruscitti P, Cipriani P, Liakouli V, Iacono D, Pantano I, Margiotta DPE, et al. Occurrence and predictive factors of high blood pressure, type 2 diabetes, and metabolic syndrome in rheumatoid arthritis: findings from a 3-year, multicentre, prospective, observational study. Clin Exp Rheumatol. 2021;39(5):995–1002.

Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

Romano S, Salustri E, Ruscitti P, Carubbi F, Penco M, Giacomelli R. Cardiovascular and metabolic comorbidities in rheumatoid arthritis. Curr Rheumatol Rep. 2018;20(12):81.

Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

England BR, Thiele GM, Anderson DR, Mikuls TR. Increased cardiovascular risk in rheumatoid arthritis: mechanisms and implications. BMJ. 2018;361: k1036.

Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

Semb AG, Rollefstad S, Ikdahl E, Wibetoe G, Sexton J, Crowson C, et al. Diabetes mellitus and cardiovascular risk management in patients with rheumatoid arthritis: an international audit. RMD Open. 2021;7(2): e001724.

Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

Baker JF, England BR, George M, Cannon G, Sauer B, Ogdie A, et al. Disease activity, cytokines, chemokines and the risk of incident diabetes in rheumatoid arthritis. Ann Rheum Dis. 2021;80(5):566–72.

Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

Ruscitti P, Ursini F, Cipriani P, Ciccia F, Liakouli V, Carubbi F, et al. Prevalence of type 2 diabetes and impaired fasting glucose in patients affected by rheumatoid arthritis: results from a cross-sectional study. Medicine (Baltimore). 2017;96(34): e7896.

Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

Dessein PH, Joffe BI. Insulin resistance and impaired beta cell function in rheumatoid arthritis. Arthritis Rheum. 2006;54(9):2765–75.

Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

Rosenvinge A, Krogh-Madsen R, Baslund B, Pedersen BK. Insulin resistance in patients with rheumatoid arthritis: effect of anti-TNFalpha therapy. Scand J Rheumatol. 2007;36(2):91–6.

Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

Lebovitz HE. Insulin resistance: definition and consequences. Exp Clin Endocrinol Diabetes. 2001;109(Suppl 2):S135–48.

Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

Brunton S. Pathophysiology of type 2 diabetes: the evolution of our understanding. J Fam Pract. 2016;65(4 Suppl):0416.

Google Scholar 

Chung CP, Oeser A, Solus JF, Avalos I, Gebretsadik T, Shintani A, et al. Prevalence of the metabolic syndrome is increased in rheumatoid arthritis and is associated with coronary atherosclerosis. Atherosclerosis. 2008;196(2):756–63.

Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

Giles JT, Danielides S, Szklo M, Post WS, Blumenthal RS, Petri M, et al. Insulin resistance in rheumatoid arthritis: disease-related indicators and associations with the presence and progression of subclinical atherosclerosis. Arthritis Rheumatol. 2015;67(3):626–36.

Article  CAS  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

Hoes JN, van der Goes MC, van Raalte DH, van der Zijl NJ, den Uyl D, Lems WF, et al. Glucose tolerance, insulin sensitivity and β-cell function in patients with rheumatoid arthritis treated with or without low-to-medium dose glucocorticoids. Ann Rheum Dis. 2011;70(11):1887–94.

Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

Nicolau J, Lequerré T, Bacquet H, Vittecoq O. Rheumatoid arthritis, insulin resistance, and diabetes. Jt Bone Spine. 2017;84(4):411–6.

Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

Jiang P, Li H, Li X. Diabetes mellitus risk factors in rheumatoid arthritis: a systematic review and meta-analysis. Clin Exp Rheumatol. 2015;33(1):115–21.

PubMed  Google Scholar 

Ruscitti P, Ursini F, Cipriani P, Liakouli V, Carubbi F, Berardicurti O, et al. Poor clinical response in rheumatoid arthritis is the main risk factor for diabetes development in the short-term: a 1-year, single-centre, longitudinal study. PLoS One. 2017;12(7): e0181203.

Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

Tian Z, Mclaughlin J, Verma A, Chinoy H, Heald AH. The relationship between rheumatoid arthritis and diabetes mellitus: a systematic review and meta-analysis. Cardiovasc Endocrinol Metab. 2021;10(2):125–31.

Article  CAS  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

Li J, Chen Y, Liu Q, Tian Z, Zhang Y. Mechanistic and therapeutic links between rheumatoid arthritis and diabetes mellitus. Clin Exp Med. 2022. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10238-022-00816-1.

Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

Matulewicz N, Karczewska-Kupczewska M. Insulin resistance and chronic inflammation. Postepy Hig Med Dosw (Online). 2016;70:1245–58.

Google Scholar 

Lin C, Ji H, Cai X, Yang W, Lv F, Ji L. The association between the biological disease-modifying anti-rheumatic drugs and the incidence of diabetes: a systematic review and meta-analysis. Pharmacol Res. 2020;161: 105216.

Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

Ruscitti P, Cipriani P, Liakouli V, Carubbi F, Berardicurti O, Di Benedetto P, et al. The emerging role of IL-1 inhibition in patients affected by rheumatoid arthritis and diabetes. Rev Recent Clin Trials. 2018;13(3):210–4.

Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

Giacomelli R, Ruscitti P, Alvaro S, Ciccia F, Liakouli V, Di Benedetto P, et al. IL-1β at the crossroad between rheumatoid arthritis and type 2 diabetes: may we kill two birds with one stone? Expert Rev Clin Immunol. 2016;12(8):849–55.

Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

Burska AN, Sakthiswary R, Sattar N. Effects of tumour necrosis factor antagonists on insulin sensitivity/resistance in rheumatoid arthritis: a systematic review and meta-analysis. PLoS One. 2015;10(6): e0128889.

Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

Ursini F, Russo E, Letizia Hribal M, Mauro D, Savarino F, Bruno C, et al. Abatacept improves whole-body insulin sensitivity in rheumatoid arthritis: an observational study. Medicine (Baltimore). 2015;94(21): e888.

Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

Ruscitti P, Cipriani P, Cantarini L, Liakouli V, Vitale A, Carubbi F, et al. Efficacy of inhibition of IL-1 in patients with rheumatoid arthritis and type 2 diabetes mellitus: two case reports and review of the literature. J Med Case Rep. 2015;9:123.

Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

Haeusler RA, McGraw TE, Accili D. Biochemical and cellular properties of insulin receptor signalling. Nat Rev Mol Cell Biol. 2018;19(1):31–44.

Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

Tripolino C, Ciaffi J, Pucino V, Ruscitti P, van Leeuwen N, Borghi C, et al. Insulin signaling in arthritis. Front Immunol. 2021;12: 672519.

Article  CAS  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

Chen X, Liu Y, Zhang X. Topical insulin application improves healing by regulating the wound inflammatory response. Wound Repair Regen. 2012;20(3):425–34.

Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

Yu T, Gao M, Yang P, Pei Q, Liu D, Wang D, et al. Topical insulin accelerates cutaneous wound healing in insulin-resistant diabetic rats. Am J Transl Res. 2017;9(10):4682–93.

CAS  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

van Niekerk G, Christowitz C, Conradie D, Engelbrecht AM. Insulin as an immunomodulatory hormone. Cytokine Growth Factor Rev. 2020;52:34–44.

Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

Sun Q, Li J, Gao F. New insights into insulin: the anti-inflammatory effect and its clinical relevance. World J Diabetes. 2014;5(2):89–96.

Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

Maciver NJ, Jacobs SR, Wieman HL, Wofford JA, Coloff JL, Rathmell JC. Glucose metabolism in lymphocytes is a regulated process with significant effects on immune cell function and survival. J Leukoc Biol. 2008;84(4):949–57.

Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

Walrand S, Guillet C, Boirie Y, Vasson MP. In vivo evidences that insulin regulates human polymorphonuclear neutrophil functions. J Leukoc Biol. 2004;76(6):1104–10.

Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

Biswas A, Oh PI, Faulkner GE, Bajaj RR, Silver MA, Mitchell MS, et al. Sedentary time and its association with risk for disease incidence, mortality, and hospitalization in adults: a systematic review and meta-analysis. Ann Intern Med. 2015;162(2):123–32.

Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

Løgstrup BB, Ellingsen T, Pedersen AB, Darvalics B, Olesen KKW, Bøtker HE, et al. Cardiovascular risk and mortality in rheumatoid arthritis compared with diabetes mellitus and the general population. Rheumatology (Oxford). 2021;60(3):1400–9.

Article  Google Scholar 

McInnes IB, Schett G. The pathogenesis of rheumatoid arthritis. N Engl J Med. 2011;365(23):2205–19.

Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

Mandrup-Poulsen T, Pickersgill L, Donath MY. Blockade of interleukin 1 in type 1 diabetes mellitus. Nat Rev Endocrinol. 2010;6(3):158–66.

Article  CAS