Thompson A.J. Baranzini S.E. Geurts J. et al.

Multiple Sclerosis.

Lancet Neurol. 391: 1622-1636Brownlee W.J. Hardy T.A. Fazekas F. et al.

Diagnosis of multiple sclerosis: progress and challenges.

Lancet. 389: 1336-1346

Multiple sclerosis: diagnosis, differential diagnosis, and clinical presentation.

Handb Clin Neurol. https://doi.org/10.1016/B978-0-444-52001-2.00011-XEriksson M. Andersen O. Runmarker B.

Long-term follow up of patients with clinically isolated syndromes, relapsing-remitting and secondary progressive multiple sclerosis.

Mult Scler. 9: 260-274

Disease-modifying treatment in progressive multiple sclerosis.

Curr Treat Options Neurol. 20: 12

New approaches to the diagnosis, clinical course, and goals of therapy in multiple sclerosis and related disorders.

Continuum (Minneap Minn). 22: 723-729

Natural history of multiple sclerosis.

Brain. 129: 606-616Lublin F.D. Reingold S.C. Cohen J a et al.

Defining the clinical course of multiple sclerosis: the 2013 revisions.

Neurology. 83: 278-286

Pediatric multiple sclerosis.

Neurol Clin. 36: 135-149

Pediatric acquired CNS demyelinating syndromes.

Neurology. 87: s67-s73Wallin M.T. Culpepper W.J. Campbell J.D. et al.

The prevalence of MS in the United States.

Neurology. 92 (): e1029

2017 McDonald MS diagnostic criteria: Evidence-based revisions.

Mult Scler J. 24: 92-95Hempel S. Graham G.D. Fu N. et al.

A systematic review of modifiable risk factors in the progression of multiple sclerosis.

Mult Scler. 23: 525-533

Severe, highly active, or aggressive multiple sclerosis.

Continuum (Minneap Minn). 22: 761-784

Poor recovery after the first two attacks of multiple sclerosis is associated with poor outcome five years later.

J Neurol Sci. 292: 52-56Reich D.S. Lucchinetti C.F. Calabresi P.A.

Multiple Sclerosis.

N Engl J Med. 378: 169-180Jacobs B.M. Giovannoni G. Cuzick J. et al.

Systematic review and meta-analysis of the association between Epstein–Barr virus, multiple sclerosis and other risk factors.

Mult Scler J. 26: 1281-1297Bjornevik K. Cortese M. Healy B.C. et al.

Longitudinal analysis reveals high prevalence of Epstein-Barr virus associated with multiple sclerosis.

Science. 375: 296-301

Linking Epstein-Barr virus infection to multiple sclerosis.

Nat Rev Immunol. 7: 41586

Pediatric demyelination.

Continuum (Minneap Minn). 22: 897-915Yamamoto E. Ginsberg M. Rensel M. et al.

Pediatric-onset multiple sclerosis: a single center study.

J Child Neurol. 33: 98-105Rostásy K. Bajer-Kornek B.

Paediatric multiple sclerosis and other acute demyelinating diseases.

Curr Opin Neurol. 31: 244-248Kozhieva M. Naumova N. Alikina T. et al.

Primary progressive multiple sclerosis in a Russian cohort: relationship with gut bacterial diversity.

BMC Microbiol. 19: 309Katz Sand I. Zhu Y. Ntranos A. et al.

Disease-modifying therapies alter gut microbial composition in MS.

Neurol Neuroimmunol Neuroinflammation. 6: e517Amezcua L. Conti D. Liu L. et al.

Place of birth, age of immigration, and disability in Hispanics with multiple sclerosis.

Mult Scler Relat Disord. 4: 25-30Pérez C.A. Salehbeiki A. Zhu L. et al.

Assessment of Racial/Ethnic Disparities in Volumetric MRI Correlates of Clinical Disability in Multiple Sclerosis: A Preliminary Study.

J Neuroimaging. 31: 115-123Mercado V. Dongarwar D. Fisher K. et al.

Multiple sclerosis in a multi-ethnic population in houston, texas: A retrospective analysis.

Biomedicines. 8: 1-11Amezcua L. Oksenberg J.R. McCauley J.L.

MS in self-identified Hispanic/Latino individuals living in the US.

Mult Scler J. 3 ()Amezcua L. Lund B.T. Weiner L.P. et al.

Multiple sclerosis in Hispanics: A study of clinical disease expression.

Mult Scler J. 17: 1010-1016

Socioeconomic status and multiple sclerosis outcome.

Nat Rev Neurol. https://doi.org/10.1038/s41582-020-0329-3

Racial and ethnic disparities in treatment response and tolerability in multiple sclerosis: A comparative study.

Mult Scler Relat Disord. 56: 103248Nakamura Y. Gaetano L. Matsushita T. et al.

A comparison of brain magnetic resonance imaging lesions in multiple sclerosis by race with reference to disability progression.

J Neuroinflammation. 15https://doi.org/10.1186/s12974-018-1295-1Amezcua L. Smith J.B. Gonzales E.G. et al.

Race, ethnicity, and cognition in persons newly diagnosed with multiple sclerosis.

Neurology. 94: 1-9

Race and ethnicity on MS presentation and disease course.

Mult Scler J. : 1-7Song X. Li D. Qiu Z. et al.

Correlation between EDSS scores and cervical spinal cord atrophy at 3T MRI in multiple sclerosis: A systematic review and meta-analysis.

Mult Scler Relat Disord. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.msard.2019.101426

Inadequacy of Clinical Trial Designs and Data to Control for the Confounding Impact of Race/Ethnicity in Response to Treatment in Multiple Sclerosis.

JAMA Neurol. 71: 943-944

Full results of the Evidence of Interferon Dose-Response-European North American Comparative Efficacy (EVIDENCE) study: a multicenter, randomized, assessor-blinded comparison of low-dose weekly versus high-dose, high-frequency interferon beta-1a for rela.

Clin Ther. 29: 2031-2048Kappos L. Edan G. Freedman M.S. et al.

The 11-year long-term follow-up study from the randomized BENEFIT CIS trial.

Neurology. 87: 978-987Barkhof F. de Jong R. Sfikas N. et al.

The influence of patient demographics, disease characteristics and treatment on brain volume loss in Trial Assessing Injectable Interferon vs FTY720 Oral in Relapsing-Remitting Multiple Sclerosis (TRANSFORMS), a phase 3 study of fingolimod in multiple sc.

Mult Scler. 20: 1704-1713O’Connor P. Comi G. Freedman M.S. et al.

Long-term safety and efficacy of teriflunomide: Nine-year follow-up of the randomized TEMSO study.

Neurology. 86: 920-930Koch M. Kingwell E. Rieckmann P.

The natural history of primary progressive multiple sclerosis.

Neurology. 73: 1996-2002Miller D.H. Chard D.T. Ciccarelli O.

Clinically isolated syndromes.

Lancet Neurol. 11: 157-169van der Vuurst de Vries R.M. Mescheriakova J.Y. Wong Y.Y.M. et al.

Application of the 2017 Revised McDonald Criteria for Multiple Sclerosis to Patients With a Typical Clinically Isolated Syndrome.

JAMA Neurol. 75: 1392-1398

Natural Course of Clinically Isolated Syndrome: A Longitudinal Analysis Using a Markov Model.

Sci Rep. 8: 10857McDonald W.I. Compston A. Edan G. et al.

Recommended diagnostic criteria for multiple sclerosis: guidelines from the International Panel on the diagnosis of multiple sclerosis.

Ann Neurol. 50: 121-127Tillery E.E. Clements J.N. Howard Z.

What’s new in multiple sclerosis?.

Ment Heal Clin. 7: 213-220Thompson A.J. Banwell B.L. Barkhof F. et al.

Diagnosis of multiple sclerosis: 2017 revisions of the McDonald criteria.

Lancet Neurol. 17: 162-173Differential diagnosis, clinical features, and prognosis of multiple sclerosis. In: Current clinical neurology: multiple sclerosis. Humana Press Inc, Totowa, NJ: 15-53

Primary-progressive multiple sclerosis.

Lancet Neurol. 6: 903-912Vollmer T.L. Nair K.V. Williams I.M. et al.

Multiple Sclerosis Phenotypes as a Continuum.

Neurol Clin Pract. 11: 342-351De Stefano N. Giorgio A. Tintoré M. et al.

Radiologically isolated syndrome or subclinical multiple sclerosis: MAGNIMS consensus recommendations.

Mult Scler J. 23: 214-221

Radiologically isolated syndrome should be treated with disease-modifying therapy – commentary.

Mult Scler J. 23: 1821-1823Okuda D.T. Siva A. Kantarci O. et al.

Radiologically isolated syndrome: 5-year risk for an initial clinical event.

PLoS One. 9https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0090509Matute-Blanch C. Villar L.M. Álvarez-Cermeño J.C. et al.

Neurofilament light chain and oligoclonal bands are prognostic biomarkers in radiologically isolated syndrome.

Brain. 141: 1085-1093

Radiologically isolated syndrome and multiple sclerosis.

Mult Scler Relat Disord. 17: 234-237Filippi M. Preziosa P. Meani A. et al.

Prediction of a multiple sclerosis diagnosis in patients with clinically isolated syndrome using the 2016 MAGNIMS and 2010 McDonald criteria: a retrospective study.

Lancet Neurol. 17: 133-142

Making the diagnosis of multiple sclerosis.

J Neurol Neurosurg Psychiatry. 71 ()McMahon K.L. Cowin G. Galloway G.

Magnetic resonance imaging: The underlying principles.

J Orthop Sports Phys Ther. 41: 806-819

Multiple sclerosis: the role of MR imaging.

AJNR Am J Neuroradiol. 27: 1165-1176

Immune-mediated myelopathies.

Continuum (Minneap Minn). 24: 497-522Wildner P. Stasiołek M. Matysiak M.

Differential diagnosis of multiple sclerosis and other inflammatory CNS diseases.

Mult Scler Relat Disord. 37: 101452Schäffler N. Köpke S. Winkler L. et al.

Accuracy of diagnostic tests in multiple sclerosis - a systematic review.

Acta Neurol Scand. 124: 151-164Weinshenker B.G. Wingerchuk D.M.

Neuromyelitis Spectrum Disorders.

Mayo Clin Proc. 92: 663-679Shukla N.M. Lotze T.E. Muscal E.

Inflammatory Diseases of the Central Nervous System.

Neurol Clin. 39: 811-828

Multiple sclerosis and the choroid plexus: emerging concepts of disease immunopathophysiology.

Pediatr Neurol. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.pediatrneurol.2019.08.007Lucchinetti C.F. Guo Y. Popescu B.F.G. et al.

The pathology of an autoimmune astrocytopathy: lessons learned from neuromyelitis optica.

Brain Pathol. 24: 83-97Borisow N. Mori M. Kuwabara S. et al.

Diagnosis and Treatment of NMO Spectrum Disorder and MOG-Encephalomyelitis.

Front Neurol. 9https://doi.org/10.3389/fneur.2018.00888Lana-Peixoto M.A. Talim N.

Neuromyelitis optica spectrum disorder and anti-MOG syndromes.

Biomedicines. 7: 1-24Wynford-Thomas R. Jacob A. Tomassini V.

Neurological update: MOG antibody disease.

J Neurol. 266: 1280-1286Zhou L. Huang Y. Li H. et al.

MOG-antibody associated demyelinating disease of the CNS: A clinical and pathological study in Chinese Han patients.

J Neuroimmunol. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jneuroim.2017.01.007Shor N. Deschamps R. Cobo Calvo A. et al.

MRI characteristics of MOG-Ab associated disease in adults: An update.

Rev Neurol (Paris). 177: 39-50Menge T. Hemmer B. Nessler S. et al.

Acute Disseminated Encephalomyelitis: An Update.

Arch Neurol. 62: 1673-1680Tenembaum S. Chamoles N. Fejerman N.

Acute disseminated encephalomyelitis: A long-term follow-up study of 84 pediatric patients.

Neurology. 59: 1224-1231Weinshenker B.G. O’Brien P.C. Petterson T.M. et al.

A randomized trial of plasma exchange in acute central nervous system inflammatory demyelinating disease.

Ann Neurol. 46: 878-886Harding K. Williams O. Willis M. et al.

Clinical outcomes of escalation vs early intensive disease-modifying therapy in patients with multiple sclerosis.

JAMA Neurol. 76: 536-541

Interferon beta-1b is effective in relapsing-remitting multiple sclerosis.

Neurology. 43 ()

Established and novel disease-modifying treatments in multiple sclerosis.

J Intern Med. 275: 350-363Zhang J. Hutton G. Zang Y.

A comparison of the mechanisms of action of interferon beta and glatiramer acetate in the treatment of multiple sclerosis.

Clin Ther. 24: 1998-2021Kappos L. Freedman M.S. Polman C.H. et al.

Long-term effect of early treatment with interferon beta-1b after a first clinical event suggestive of multiple sclerosis: 5-year active treatment extension of the phase 3 BENEFIT trial.

Lancet Neurol. 8: 987-997La Mantia L. Di Pietrantonj C. Rovaris M. et al.

Interferons-beta versus glatiramer acetate for relapsing-remitting multiple sclerosis.

Cochrane Database Syst Rev. https://doi.org/10.1002/14651858.CD009333.pub3

Glatiramer acetate: mechanisms of action in multiple sclerosis.

Autoimmun Rev. 6: 469-475Rae-Grant A. Day G.S. Marrie R.A. et al.

Practice guideline recommendations summary: Disease-modifying therapies for adults with multiple sclerosis.

Neurology. 90: 777-788Liu Z. Liao Q. Wen H. et al.

Disease modifying therapies in relapsing-remitting multiple sclerosis: A systematic review and network meta-analysis.

Autoimmun Rev. 20: 102826Cotchett K.R. Dittel B.N. Obeidat A.Z.

Comparison of the Efficacy and Safety of Anti-CD20 B Cells Depleting Drugs in Multiple Sclerosis.

Mult Scler Relat Disord. 49https://doi.org/10.1016/j.msard.2021.102787Eriksson I. Komen J. Piehl F. et al.

The changing multiple sclerosis treatment landscape: impact of new drugs and treatment recommendations.

Eur J Clin Pharmacol. 74: 663-670Wingerchuk D.M. Carter J.L.

Multiple sclerosis: current and emerging disease-modifying therapies and treatment strategies.

Mayo Clin Proc. 89: 225-240Naismith R.T. Wundes A. Ziemssen T. et al.

Diroximel Fumarate Demonstrates an Improved Gastrointestinal Tolerability Profile Compared with Dimethyl Fumarate in Patients with Relapsing–Remitting Multiple Sclerosis: Results from the Randomized, Double-Blind, Phase III EVOLVE-MS-2 Study.

CNS Drugs. 34: 185-196

Initiating oral fingolimod treatment in patients with multiple sclerosis.

Ther Adv Neurol Disord. 6: 269-275

Cladribine: Mode of Action and Implications for Treatment of Multiple Sclerosis.

Clin Neuropharmacol. 34 (): 28-35Neema M. Stankiewicz J. Arora A. et al.

MRI in multiple sclerosis: what’s inside the toolbox?.

Neurotherapeutics. 4: 602-617Feinstein A. Freeman J. Lo A.C.

Treatment of progressive multiple sclerosis: what works, what does not, and what is needed.

Lancet Neurol. 14: 194-207Rocca M.A. Messina R. Filippi M.

Multiple sclerosis imaging: recent advances.

J Neurol. 260: 929-935Montalban X. Hauser S.L. Kappos L. et al.

Ocrelizumab versus Placebo in Primary Progressive Multiple Sclerosis.

N Engl J Med. 376: 209-220Coles A.J. Cox A. Le Page E. et al.

The window of therapeutic opportunity in multiple sclerosis: evidence from monoclonal antibody therapy.

J Neurol. 253: 98-108Leray E. Yaouanq J. Le Page E. et al.

Evidence for a two-stage disability progression in multiple sclerosis.

Brain. 133: 1900-1913Ontaneda D. Tallantyre E. Kalincik T. et al.

Early highly effective versus escalation treatment approaches in relapsing multiple sclerosis.

Lancet Neurol. 18: 973-980Grand’Maison F. Yeung M. Morrow S.A. et al.

Sequencing of disease-modifying therapies for relapsing–remitting multiple sclerosis: a theoretical approach to optimizing treatment.

Curr Med Res Opin. 34: 1419-1430

Rethinking multiple sclerosis treatment strategies.

Lancet Neurol. 19: 281-282

Progressive multiple sclerosis.

Continuum (Minneap Minn). 22: 785-798Kappos L. Bar-Or A. Cree B.A.C. et al.

Siponimod versus placebo in secondary progressive multiple sclerosis (EXPAND): a double-blind, randomised, phase 3 study.

Lancet. 391: 1263-1273Vermersch P. Brieva-Ruiz L. Fox R.J. et al.

Efficacy and Safety of Masitinib in Progressive Forms of Multiple Sclerosis.

Neurol Neuroimmunol Neuroinflammation. 9: e1148

BTK inhibitors as potential therapies for multiple sclerosis.

Lancet Neurol. 20: 689-691Podbielska M. Banik N.L. Kurowska E. et al.

Myelin recovery in multiple sclerosis: the challenge of remyelination.

Brain Sci. 3: 1282-1324Cree B.A.C. Cutter G. Wolinsky J.S. et al.

Safety and efficacy of MD1003 (high-dose biotin) in patients with progressive multiple sclerosis (SPI2): a randomised, double-blind, placebo-controlled, phase 3 trial.

Lancet Neurol. 19: 988-997Sedel F. Papeix C. Bellanger A. et al.

High doses of biotin in chronic progressive multiple sclerosis: A pilot study.

Mult Scler Relat Disord. 4: 159-169Green A.J. Gelfand J.M. Cree B.A. et al.

Clemastine fumarate as a remyelinating therapy for multiple sclerosis (ReBUILD): a randomised, controlled, double-blind, crossover trial.

Lancet. 390: 2481-2489Cohen J.A. Baldassari L.E. Atkins H.L. et al.

Autologous Hematopoietic Cell Transplantation for Treatment-Refractory Relapsing Multiple Sclerosis: Position Statement from the American Society for Blood and Marrow Transplantation.

Biol Blood Marrow Transplant. 25: 845-854Mansoor S.R. Zabihi E. Ghasemi-Kasman M.

The potential use of mesenchymal stem cells for the treatment of multiple sclerosis.

Life Sci. 235: 116830Cohen J.A. Imrey P.B. Planchon S.M. et al.

Pilot trial of intravenous autologous culture-expanded mesenchymal stem cell transplantation in multiple sclerosis.

Mult Scler. 24: 501-511

Stem Cell-Based Therapies for Multiple Sclerosis: Current Perspectives.

Biomedicines. 7: 26Rawji K.S. Gonzalez Martinez G.A. Sharma A. et al.

The Role of Astrocytes in Remyelination.

Trends Neurosci. 43: 596-607Traiffort E. Kassoussi A. Zahaf A. et al.

Astrocytes and Microglia as Major Players of Myelin Production in Normal and Pathological Conditions.

Front Cell Neurosci. 14https://doi.org/10.3389/fncel.2020.00079Nath N. Khan M. Paintlia M.K. et al.

Metformin attenuated the autoimmune disease of the central nervous system in animal models of multiple sclerosis.

J Immunol. 182: 8005-8014