Parens, E. The inflated promise of genomic medicine. Scientific American https://blogs.scientificamerican.com/observations/the-inflated-promise-of-genomic-medicine/ (2020).

Panofsky, A. Misbehaving Science (Univ. of Chicago Press, 2014).

Polderman, T. J. C. et al. Meta-analysis of the heritability of human traits based on fifty years of twin studies. Nat. Genet. 47, 702–709 (2015).

Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

Jensen, A. How much can we boost IQ and scholastic achievement. Harv. Educ. Rev. 39, 1–123 (1969).

Article  Google Scholar 

Murray, C. Human Diversity: The Biology of Gender, Race, and Class (Twelve, 2020).

Belsky, D. W. & Harden, K. P. Phenotypic annotation: using polygenic scores to translate discoveries from genome-wide association studies from the top down. Curr. Dir. Psychol. Sci. 28, 82–90 (2019).

Article  Google Scholar 

Visscher, P. M. et al. 10 years of GWAS discovery: biology, function, and translation. Am. J. Hum. Genet. 101, 5–22 (2017).

Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

Martschenko, D. O., Domingue, B. W., Matthews, L. J. & Trejo, S. FoGS provides a public FAQ repository for social and behavioral genomic discoveries. Nat. Genet. 53, 1272–1274 (2021).

Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

Freese, J. The arrival of social science genomics. Contemp. Sociol. 47, 524–536 (2018).

Article  Google Scholar 

Salganik, M. J. et al. Measuring the predictability of life outcomes with a scientific mass collaboration. Peoc. Natl Acad. Sci. USA 117, 8398–8403 (2020).

Article  Google Scholar 

Okbay, A. et al. Polygenic prediction of educational attainment within and between families from genome-wide association analyses in 3 million individuals. Nat. Genet. 1–13 https://doi.org/10.1038/s41588-022-01016-z (2022).

Comfort, N. Genetic determinism rides again. Nature 561, 461–463 (2018).

Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

Hoefer, C. Causal determinism. The Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy (Spring 2016 Edition), Edward N. Zalta (ed.), https://plato.stanford.edu/archives/spr2016/entries/determinism-causal (2016).

Block, N. How heritability misleads about race. Cognition 56, 99–128 (1995).

Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

Woodward, J. Causation in biology: stability, specificity, and the choice of levels of explanation. Biol. Philos. 25, 287–318 (2010).

Article  Google Scholar 

McKusick, V. A. Ellis–van Creveld syndrome and the Amish. Nat. Genet. 24, 203–204 (2000).

Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

Kendler, K. S. “A gene for …”: the nature of gene action in psychiatric disorders. AJP 162, 1243–1252 (2005).

Article  Google Scholar 

Visscher, P. M., Hill, W. G. & Wray, N. R. Heritability in the genomics era — concepts and misconceptions. Nat. Rev. Genet. 9, 255–266 (2008).

Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

Heath, A. C. et al. Education policy and the heritability of educational attainment. Nature 314, 734–736 (1985).

Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

Burgoyne, A. P. et al. Can a brief intervention alter genetic and environmental influences on psychological traits? An experimental behavioral genetics approach. Learn. Motiv. 72, 101683 (2020).

Article  Google Scholar 

Raffington, L. et al. An in-laboratory stressor reveals unique genetic variation in child cortisol output. Dev. Psychol. https://doi.org/10.1037/dev0001393 (2022).

Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

Madole, J. W. & Harden, K. P. Building causal knowledge in behavior genetics. Behav. Brain Sci. 1–76 https://doi.org/10.1017/S0140525X22000681 (2022).

Williams, S. C. P. Genes don’t just influence your IQ — they determine how well you do in school. Science https://doi.org/10.1126/article.22329 (2014).

Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

Regalado, A. Forecasts of genetic fate just got a lot more accurate. MIT Technology Review https://www.technologyreview.com/2018/02/21/241168/forecasts-of-genetic-fate-just-got-a-lot-more-accurate/ (2018).

Herd, P. et al. Genes, gender inequality, and educational attainment. Am. Sociol. Rev. 84, 1069–1098 (2019).

Article  Google Scholar 

Plomin, R. & von Stumm, S. The new genetics of intelligence. Nat. Rev. Genet. 19, 148–159 (2018).

Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

Weissgerber, T. L., Milic, N. M., Winham, S. J. & Garovic, V. D. Beyond bar and line graphs: time for a new data presentation paradigm. PLoS Biol. 13, e1002128 (2015).

Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

Kevles, D. J. In the Name of Eugenics: Genetics and the Uses of Human Heredity (Harvard Univ. Press, 1998).

Wedow, R., Martschenko, D. O. & Trejo, S. Scientists must consider the risk of racist misappropriation of research. Scientific American https://www.scientificamerican.com/article/scientists-must-consider-the-risk-of-racist-misappropriation-of-research/ (2022).

Hochschild, J. Genomic Politics: How the Revolution in Genomic Science is Shaping American Society (Oxford Univ. Press, 2021).

Shostak, S., Freese, J., Link, B. G. & Phelan, J. C. The politics of the gene: social status and beliefs about genetics for individual outcomes. Soc. Psychol. Q. 72, 77–93 (2009).

Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

Rothwell, J. Experiment shows conservatives more willing to share wealth than they say. New York Times https://www.nytimes.com/2020/02/13/upshot/trump-supporters-experiment-inequality.html (2020).

Willoughby, E. A. et al. Free will, determinism, and intuitive judgments about the heritability of behavior. Behav. Genet. 49, 136–153 (2019).

Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

Carver, R. B., Castéra, J., Gericke, N., Evangelista, N. A. M. & El-Hani, C. N. Young adults’ belief in genetic determinism, and knowledge and attitudes towards modern genetics and genomics: the PUGGS questionnaire. PLoS One 12, e0169808 (2017).

Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

Medin, D. L. & Ortony, A. in Similarity and Analogical Reasoning 179–195 (Cambridge Univ. Press, 1989). https://doi.org/10.1017/CBO9780511529863.009.

Keller, J. In genes we trust: the biological component of psychological essentialism and its relationship to mechanisms of motivated social cognition. J. Pers. Soc. Psychol. 88, 686–702 (2005).

Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

Gelman, S. A. The Essential Child: Origins of Essentialism in Everyday Thought (Oxford Univ. Press, 2005).

Haslam, N., Rothschild, L. & Ernst, D. Essentialist beliefs about social categories. Br. J. Soc. Psychol. 39 (Pt 1), 113–27 (2000).

Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

Tabb, K., Lebowitz, M. S. & Appelbaum, P. S. Behavioral genetics and attributions of moral responsibility. Behav. Genet. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10519-018-9916-0 (2018).

Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

Dar-Nimrod, I. & Heine, S. J. Genetic essentialism: on the deceptive determinism of DNA. Psychol. Bull. 137, 800–818 (2011).

Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

Allport, G. W., Clark, K. & Pettigrew, T. The Nature of Prejudice: 25th Anniversary Edition (Basic Books, 1979).

Mandalaywala, T. M. Does essentialism lead to racial prejudice? It is not so Black and White. Adv. Child. Dev. Behav. 59, 195–245 (2020).

Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

Andreychik, M. R. & Gill, M. J. Do natural kind beliefs about social groups contribute to prejudice? Distinguishing bio-somatic essentialism from bio-behavioral essentialism, and both of these from entitativity. Group. Process. Intergroup Relat. 18, 454–474 (2015).

Article  Google Scholar 

Mandalaywala, T. M., Amodio, D. M. & Rhodes, M. Essentialism promotes racial prejudice by increasing endorsement of social hierarchies. Soc. Psychol. Personal. Sci. 9, 461–469 (2018).

Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

Dar-Nimrod, I. & Heine, S. J. Exposure to scientific theories affects women’s math performance. Science 314, 435–435 (2006).

Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

Donovan, B. M. et al. Toward a more humane genetics education: learning about the social and quantitative complexities of human genetic variation research could reduce racial bias in adolescent and adult populations. Sci. Educ. 103, 529–560 (2019).

Article  Google Scholar 

Brescoll, V. L., Uhlmann, E. L. & Newman, G. E. The effects of system-justifying motives on endorsement of essentialist explanations for gender differences. J. Pers. Soc. Psychol. 105, 891–908 (2013).

Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

Bailey, A. & Knobe, J. Biological essentialism correlates with (but doesn’t cause?) intergroup bias. Pers. Soc. Psychol. Bull. https://doi.org/10.31234/osf.io/rx8jc (2022).

Article  Google Scholar 

Haslam, N. & Levy, S. R. Essentialist beliefs about homosexuality: structure and implications for prejudice. Pers. Soc. Psychol. Bull. 32, 471–485 (2006).

Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

Verkuyten, M. Discourses about ethnic group (de-)essentialism: oppressive and progressive aspects. Br. J. Soc. Psychol. 42, 371–391 (2003).

Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

Carlson, J. & Harris, K. Quantifying and contextualizing the impact of bioRxiv preprints through automated social media audience segmentation. PLoS Biol. 18, e3000860 (2020).

Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

Rosenberg, A. Reductionism in a historical science. Philos. Sci. 68, 135–163 (2001).

Article  Google Scholar 

Guze, S. B. Biological psychiatry: is there any other kind? Psychol. Med. 19, 315–323 (1989).

Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

Feldman, M. W. & Riskin, J. Why biology is not destiny. The New York Review of Books https://www.nybooks.com/articles/2022/04/21/why-biology-is-not-destiny-genetic-lottery-kathryn-harden/ (2022).

Kendler, K. S. Toward a philosophical structure for psychiatry. Am. J. Psychiatr. 162, 433-440 (2005).

Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

Muszynski, E. & Malaterre, C. A roadmap to explanatory pluralism: introduction to the topical collection The Biology of Behaviour. Synthese 199, 1777–1789 (2021).

Article