Hornby TG, Reisman DS, Ward IG, Scheets PL, Miller A, Haddad D, Fox EJ, Fritz NE et al (2020) Clinical practice guideline to improve locomotor function following chronic stroke, incomplete spinal cord injury, and brain injury. J Neurol Phys Ther 44(1):49–100. https://doi.org/10.1097/NPT.0000000000000303

Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

Zhang L, Wang H (2019) Long non-coding RNA in CNS injuries: a new target for therapeutic intervention. Mol Ther Nucl Acids 17:754–766. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.omtn.2019.07.013

Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

Devanney NA, Stewart AN, Gensel JC (2020) Microglia and macrophage metabolism in CNS injury and disease: the role of immunometabolism in neurodegeneration and neurotrauma. Exp Neurol 329:113310. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.expneurol.2020.113310

Article  CAS  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

Liddelow SA, Barres BA (2017) Reactive astrocytes: production, function, and therapeutic potential. Immunity 46(6):957–967. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.immuni.2017.06.006

Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

Hill AF (2019) Extracellular vesicles and neurodegenerative diseases. J Neurosci 39(47):9269–9273. https://doi.org/10.1523/JNEUROSCI.0147-18.2019

Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

Jiang L, Dong H, Cao H, Ji X, Luan S, Liu J (2019) Exosomes in pathogenesis, diagnosis, and treatment of Alzheimer’s disease. Med Sci Monit 25:3329–3335. https://doi.org/10.12659/MSM.914027

Article  CAS  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

Gurunathan S, Kang MH, Jeyaraj M, Qasim M, Kim JH (2019) Review of the isolation, characterization, biological function, and multifarious therapeutic approaches of exosomes. Cells 8(4):307. https://doi.org/10.3390/cells8040307

Article  CAS  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

Zhang L (1871) Yu D (2019) Exosomes in cancer development, metastasis, and immunity. Biochim Biophys Acta Rev Cancer 2:455–468. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.bbcan.2019.04.004

Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

Liu J, Jiang F, Jiang Y, Wang Y, Li Z, Shi X, Zhu Y, Wang H et al (2020) Roles of exosomes in ocular diseases. Int J Nanomed 15:10519–10538. https://doi.org/10.2147/IJN.S277190

Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

Li XH, Zhang J, Li DF, Wu W, Xie ZW, Liu Q (2020) Physiological and pathological insights into exosomes in the brain. Zool Res 41(4):365–372. https://doi.org/10.24272/j.issn.2095-8137.2020.043

Article  CAS  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

Levy E (2017) Exosomes in the diseased brain: first insights from in vivo studies. Front Neurosci 11:142. https://doi.org/10.3389/fnins.2017.00142

Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

Gharbi T, Zhang Z, Yang GY (2020) The function of astrocyte mediated extracellular vesicles in central nervous system diseases. Front Cell Dev Biol 8:568889. https://doi.org/10.3389/fcell.2020.568889

Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

Chen J, Chopp M (2018) Exosome therapy for stroke. Stroke J Cereb Circ 49(5):1083–1090. https://doi.org/10.1161/STROKEAHA.117.018292

Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

Zhang ZG, Buller B, Chopp M (2019) Exosomes - beyond stem cells for restorative therapy in stroke and neurological injury. Nat Rev Neurol 15(4):193–203. https://doi.org/10.1038/s41582-018-0126-4

Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

Liu W, Bai X, Zhang A, Huang J, Xu S, Zhang J (2019) Role of exosomes in central nervous system diseases. Front Mol Neurosci 12:240. https://doi.org/10.3389/fnmol.2019.00240

Article  CAS  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

Minetti G, Achilli C, Perotti C, Ciana A (2018) Continuous change in membrane and membrane-skeleton organization during development from proerythroblast to senescent red blood cell. Front Physiol 9:286. https://doi.org/10.3389/fphys.2018.00286

Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

Guedes VA, Devoto C, Leete J, Sass D, Acott JD, Mithani S, Gill JM (2020) Extracellular vesicle proteins and microRNAs as biomarkers for traumatic brain injury. Front Neurol 11:663. https://doi.org/10.3389/fneur.2020.00663

Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

Fan Y, Chen Z, Zhang M (2022) Role of exosomes in the pathogenesis, diagnosis, and treatment of central nervous system diseases. J Transl Med 20(1):291. https://doi.org/10.1186/s12967-022-03493-6

Article  CAS  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

Sacristan C (2020) Microglia and astrocyte crosstalk in immunity. Trends Immunol 41(9):747–748. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.it.2020.07.009

Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

Guttenplan KA, Liddelow SA (2019) Astrocytes and microglia: models and tools. J Exp Med 216(1):71–83. https://doi.org/10.1084/jem.20180200

Article  CAS  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

Morita M, Ikeshima-Kataoka H, Kreft M, Vardjan N, Zorec R, Noda M (2019) Metabolic plasticity of astrocytes and aging of the brain. Int J Mol Sci 20(4):941. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijms20040941

Article  CAS  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

Sofroniew MV (2020) Astrocyte reactivity: subtypes, states, and functions in CNS innate immunity. Trends Immunol 41(9):758–770. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.it.2020.07.004

Article  CAS  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

Zhou B, Zuo YX, Jiang RT (2019) Astrocyte morphology: diversity, plasticity, and role in neurological diseases. CNS Neurosci Ther 25(6):665–673. https://doi.org/10.1111/cns.13123

Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

Spiranec Spes K, Hupp S, Werner F, Koch F, Volker K, Krebes L, Kammerer U, Heinze KG et al (2020) Natriuretic peptides attenuate retinal pathological neovascularization via cyclic guanosine monophosphate signaling in pericytes and astrocytes. Arterioscler Thromb Vasc Biol 40(1):159–174. https://doi.org/10.1161/ATVBAHA.119.313400

Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

Pekny M, Wilhelmsson U, Tatlisumak T, Pekna M (2019) Astrocyte activation and reactive gliosis-a new target in stroke? Neurosci Lett 689:45–55. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.neulet.2018.07.021

Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

Michinaga S, Koyama Y (2019) Dual roles of astrocyte-derived factors in regulation of blood-brain barrier function after brain damage. Int J Mol Sci 20(3):571. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijms20030571

Article  CAS  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

Li D, Lang W, Zhou C, Wu C, Zhang F, Liu Q, Yang S, Hao J (2018) Upregulation of microglial ZEB1 ameliorates brain damage after acute ischemic stroke. Cell Rep 22(13):3574–3586. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.celrep.2018.03.011

Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

Masuda T, Amann L, Sankowski R, Staszewski O, Lenz M, d’Errico P, Snaidero N, Costa Jordao MJ et al (2020) Novel Hexb-based tools for studying microglia in the CNS. Nat Immunol 21(7):802–815. https://doi.org/10.1038/s41590-020-0707-4

Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

Chen Z, Zhong D, Li G (2019) The role of microglia in viral encephalitis: a review. J Neuroinflammation 16(1):76. https://doi.org/10.1186/s12974-019-1443-2

Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

Sominsky L, De Luca S, Spencer SJ (2018) Microglia: Key players in neurodevelopment and neuronal plasticity. Int J Biochem Cell Biol 94:56–60. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.biocel.2017.11.012

Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

Tsuda M (2018) Microglia in the CNS and neuropathic pain. Adv Exp Med Biol 1099:77–91. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-13-1756-9_7

Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

Rodriguez-Gomez JA, Kavanagh E, Engskog-Vlachos P, Engskog MKR, Herrera AJ, Espinosa-Oliva AM, Joseph B, Hajji N et al (2020) Microglia: agents of the CNS pro-inflammatory response. Cells 9(7):1717. https://doi.org/10.3390/cells9071717

Article  CAS  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

Saint-Pol J, Gosselet F, Duban-Deweer S, Pottiez G, Karamanos Y (2020) Targeting and crossing the blood-brain barrier with extracellular vesicles. Cells 9(4):851. https://doi.org/10.3390/cells9040851

Article  CAS  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

Paolicelli RC, Bergamini G, Rajendran L (2019) Cell-to-cell communication by extracellular vesicles: focus on microglia. Neuroscience 405:148–157. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.neuroscience.2018.04.003

Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

Long X, Yao X, Jiang Q, Yang Y, He X, Tian W, Zhao K, Zhang H (2020) Astrocyte-derived exosomes enriched with miR-873a-5p inhibit neuroinflammation via microglia phenotype modulation after traumatic brain injury. J Neuroinflammation 17(1):89. https://doi.org/10.1186/s12974-020-01761-0

Article  CAS  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar