From the aDepartment of Environmental Health and Engineering, Bloomberg School of Public Health, Johns Hopkins, Baltimore, MD

bDepartment of Epidemiology, Gillings School of Global Public Health, University of North Carolina, Chapel Hill, NC.

Submitted March 7, 2022; accepted July 22, 2022

G.C. designed/conceptualized the study and analytic approach, conducted formal analyses, and drafted the original article. A.P.K. helped design/conceptualize the study and analytic approach, provided supervision and resources/review of coding, acquired funding, and reviewed/edited the article. J.P.B. acquired funding, provided comments on the analytic approach, and reviewed/edited the article. J.K. provided comments on the analytic approach and reviewed/edited the article.

This work was supported by grant R01ES029531 to investigator Alexander P. Keil from National Institute of Health/National Institute of Environmental Health Sciences (NIH/NIEHS) and grant R01ES030078 to investigator Jessie P. Buckley from NIH/NIEHS and training grant T32ES007141 to investigator Giehae Choi.

The authors report no conflicts of interest.

First part of this article used simulated data, which we provide in the supplementary R file along with codes; second part of the manuscript used publicly available data (NHANES).

Supplemental digital content is available through direct URL citations in the HTML and PDF versions of this article (www.epidem.com).

Correspondence: Giehae Choi, Department of Environmental Health and Engineering, Bloomberg School of Public Health, Johns Hopkins, Baltimore, MD, 21205, USA. E-mail: [email protected].