Goldburg SR, Strober BE, Payette MJ. Hidradenitis suppurativa: epidemiology, clinical presentation, and pathogenesis. J Am Acad Dermatol. 2020;82:1045–58.

CAS  PubMed  Article  Google Scholar 

Delany E, Gormley G, Hughes R, McCarthy S, Kirthi S, Markham T, et al. A cross-sectional epidemiological study of hidradenitis suppurativa in an Irish population (SHIP). J Eur Acad Dermatol Venereol. 2018;32:467–73.

CAS  PubMed  Article  Google Scholar 

Saunte DML, Jemec GBE. Hidradenitis suppurativa: advances in diagnosis and treatment. JAMA. 2017;318:2019–32.

PubMed  Article  Google Scholar 

Lowe MM, Naik HB, Clancy S, Pauli M, Smith KM, Bi Y, et al. Immunopathogenesis of hidradenitis suppurativa and response to anti-TNF-α therapy. JCI insight. 2020;5: e139932.

PubMed Central  Article  Google Scholar 

Witte-Händel E, Wolk K, Tsaousi A, Irmer ML, Mößner R, Shomroni O, et al. The IL-1 pathway is hyperactive in hidradenitis suppurativa and contributes to skin infiltration and destruction. J Invest Dermatol. 2019;139:1294–305.

PubMed  Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

Scheinfeld N, Sundaram M, Teixeira H, Gu Y, Okun M. Reduction in pain scores and improvement in depressive symptoms in patients with hidradenitis suppurativa treated with adalimumab in a phase 2, randomized, placebo-controlled trial. Dermatol Online J. 2016;22:13030/qt38x5922j.

Kimball AB, Kerdel F, Adams D, Mrowietz U, Gelfand JM, Gniadecki R, et al. Adalimumab for the treatment of moderate to severe hidradenitis suppurativa: a parallel randomized trial. Ann Intern Med. 2012;157:846–55.

PubMed  Article  Google Scholar 

Blok JL, Li K, Brodmerkel C, Horvátovich P, Jonkman MF, Horváth B. Ustekinumab in hidradenitis suppurativa: Clinical results and a search for potential biomarkers in serum. Br J Dermatol. 2016;174:839–46.

CAS  PubMed  Article  Google Scholar 

Tzanetakou V, Kanni T, Giatrakou S, Katoulis A, Papadavid E, Netea MG, et al. Safety and efficacy of anakinra in severe hidradenitis suppurativa a randomized clinical trial. JAMA Dermatol. 2016;152:52–9.

PubMed  Article  Google Scholar 

Alikhan A, Sayed C, Alavi A, Alhusayen R, Brassard A, Burkhart C, et al. North American clinical management guidelines for hidradenitis suppurativa: a publication from the United States and Canadian Hidradenitis Suppurativa Foundations. J Am Acad Dermatol. 2019;81:91–101.

PubMed  PubMed Central  Article  Google Scholar 

Haferland I, Wallenwein CM, Ickelsheimer T, Diehl S, Wacker MG, Schiffmann S, et al. Mechanism of anti-inflammatory effects of rifampicin in an ex vivo culture system of hidradenitis suppurativa. Exp Dermatol. 2022;31:1005–13.

CAS  PubMed  Article  Google Scholar 

Del Rosso JQ, Schmidt NF. A review of the anti-inflammatory properties of clindamycin in the treatment of acne vulgaris. Cutis. 2010;85:15–24.

PubMed  Google Scholar 

Matusiak Ł, Szczęch J, Bieniek A, Nowicka-Suszko D, Szepietowski JC. Increased interleukin (IL)-17 serum levels in patients with hidradenitis suppurativa: Implications for treatment with anti-IL-17 agents. J Am Acad Dermatol. 2017;76:670–5.

CAS  PubMed  Article  Google Scholar 

Akdogan N, Dogan S, Incel-Uysal P, Karabulut E, Topcuoglu C, Yalcin B, et al. Serum amyloid A and C-reactive protein levels and erythrocyte sedimentation rate are important indicators in hidradenitis suppurativa. Arch Dermatol Res. 2020;312:255–62.

CAS  PubMed  Article  Google Scholar 

Rashid M-U, Zaura E, Buijs MJ, Keijser BJF, Crielaard W, Nord CE, et al. Determining the long-term effect of antibiotic administration on the human normal intestinal microbiota using culture and pyrosequencing methods. Clin Infect Dis. 2015;60(Suppl 2):S77-84.

CAS  PubMed  Article  Google Scholar 

Grice EA, Kong HH, Conlan S, Deming CB, Davis J, Young AC, et al. Topographical and temporal diversity of the human skin microbiome. Science (80-). 2009;324:1190–2.

CAS  Article  Google Scholar 

Paus R, Nickoloff BJ, Ito T. A “hairy” privilege. Trends Immunol. 2005;26:32–40.

CAS  PubMed  Article  Google Scholar 

Rodriguez RS, Pauli ML, Neuhaus IM, Yu SS, Arron ST, Harris HW, et al. Memory regulatory T cells reside in human skin. J Clin Invest. 2014;124:1027–36.

CAS  Article  Google Scholar 

Scharschmidt TC, Vasquez KS, Pauli ML, Leitner EG, Chu K, Truong HA, et al. Commensal microbes and hair follicle morphogenesis coordinately drive treg migration into neonatal skin. Cell Host Microbe. 2017;21:467-477.e5.

CAS  PubMed  PubMed Central  Article  Google Scholar 

Kobayashi T, Voisin B, Kim DY, Kennedy EA, Jo JH, Shih HY, et al. Homeostatic CONTROL OF SEBACEOUS GLANDS BY INNATE LYMPHOID CELLS REGULATES COMMENSAL BACTERIA EQUILIBRIUM. Cell. 2019;176:982-997.e16.

CAS  PubMed  PubMed Central  Article  Google Scholar 

Moran B, Sweeney CM, Hughes R, Malara A, Kirthi S, Tobin AM, et al. Hidradenitis suppurativa is characterized by dysregulation of the Th17: Treg cell axis, which is corrected by anti-TNF therapy. J Invest Dermatol. 2017;137:2389–95.

CAS  PubMed  Article  Google Scholar 

Leach RD, Eykyn SJ, Phillips I, Corrin B, Taylor EA. Anaerobic axillary abscess. Br Med J. 1979;2:5–7.

CAS  PubMed  PubMed Central  Article  Google Scholar 

Lapins J, Jarstrand C, Emtestam L. Coagulase-negative staphylococci are the most common bacteria found in cultures from the deep portions of hidradenitis suppurativa lesions, as obtained by carbon dioxide laser surgery. Br J Dermatol. 1999;140:90–5.

CAS  PubMed  Article  Google Scholar 

Katoulis AC, Koumaki D, Liakou AI, Vrioni G, Koumaki V, Kontogiorgi D, et al. Aerobic and anaerobic bacteriology of hidradenitis suppurativa: a study of 22 cases. Ski Appendage Disord. 2015;1:55–9.

Article  Google Scholar 

Ring HC, Thorsen J, Saunte DM, Lilje B, Bay L, Riis PT, et al. The follicular skin microbiome in patients with hidradenitis suppurativa and healthy controls. JAMA Dermatol. 2017;153:897–905.

PubMed  PubMed Central  Article  Google Scholar 

Guet-Revillet H, Coignard-Biehler H, Jais J-P, Quesne G, Frapy E, Poirée S, et al. Bacterial pathogens associated with hidradenitis suppurativa, France. Emerg Infect Dis. 2014;20:1990–8.

CAS  PubMed  PubMed Central  Article  Google Scholar 

Ring HC, Sigsgaard V, Thorsen J, Fuursted K, Fabricius S, Saunte DM, et al. The microbiome of tunnels in hidradenitis suppurativa patients. J Eur Acad Dermatol Venereol. 2019;33:1775–80.

CAS  PubMed  Article  Google Scholar 

Zhao-Fleming HH, Wilkinson JE, Larumbe E, Dissanaike S, Rumbaugh K. Obligate anaerobes are abundant in human necrotizing soft tissue infection samples—a metagenomics analysis. APMIS. 2019;127:577–87.

PubMed  PubMed Central  Article  Google Scholar 

Hajishengallis G, Liang S, Payne MA, Hashim A, Jotwani R, Eskan MA, et al. Low-abundance biofilm species orchestrates inflammatory periodontal disease through the commensal microbiota and complement. Cell Host Microbe. 2011;10:497–506.

CAS  PubMed  PubMed Central  Article  Google Scholar 

Ring HC, Bay L, Nilsson M, Kallenbach K, Miller IM, Saunte DM, et al. Bacterial biofilm in chronic lesions of hidradenitis suppurativa. Br J Dermatol. 2017;176:993–1000.

CAS  PubMed  Article  Google Scholar 

Jahns AC, Killasli H, Nosek D, Lundskog B, Lenngren A, Muratova Z, et al. Microbiology of hidradenitis suppurativa (acne inversa): a histological study of 27 patients. APMIS. 2014;122:804–9.

PubMed  Article  Google Scholar 

Bowler P, Murphy C, Wolcott R. Biofilm exacerbates antibiotic resistance: Is this a current oversight in antimicrobial stewardship? Antimicrob Resist Infect Control. 2020;9:162.

PubMed  PubMed Central  Article  Google Scholar 

Hall CW, Mah T-F. Molecular mechanisms of biofilm-based antibiotic resistance and tolerance in pathogenic bacteria. FEMS Microbiol Rev. 2017;41:276–301.

CAS  PubMed  Article  Google Scholar 

Schultz G, Bjarnsholt T, James GA, Leaper DJ, McBain AJ, Malone M, et al. Consensus guidelines for the identification and treatment of biofilms in chronic nonhealing wounds. Wound Repair Regen. 2017;25:744–57.

PubMed  Article  Google Scholar 

Stoodley P. Evidence for a biofilm-based treatment strategy in the management of chronic hidradenitis suppurativa. Br J Dermatol. 2017;176:855–6.

CAS  PubMed  Article  Google Scholar 

Chattopadhyay S, Arnold JD, Malayil L, Hittle L, Mongodin EF, Marathe KS, et al. Potential role of the skin and gut microbiota in premenarchal vulvar lichen sclerosus: a pilot case-control study. Mitchell C, editor. PLoS ONE. 2021;16:e0245243.

CAS  PubMed  PubMed Central  Article  Google Scholar 

Tada H, Nishioka T, Takase A, Numazaki K, Bando K, Matsushita K. Porphyromonas gingivalis induces the production of interleukin-31 by human mast cells, resulting in dysfunction of the gingival epithelial barrier. Cell Microbiol. 2019;21: e12972.

PubMed  Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

Min KR, Galvis A, Baquerizo Nole KL, Sinha R, Clarke J, Kirsner RS, et al. Association between baseline abundance of Peptoniphilus, a Gram-positive anaerobic coccus, and wound healing outcomes of DFUs. PLoS ONE. 2020;15: e0227006.

CAS  PubMed  PubMed Central  Article  Google Scholar 

Brook I, Frazier EH, Yeager JK. Microbiology of infected atopic dermatitis. Int J Dermatol. 1996;35:791–3.