Farmers’ knowledge on cultivation, utilization and conservation practices of barley (Hordeum vulgare L.) in three selected districts in Ethiopia

Sociodemographic characteristics of the farmers

The sociodemographic characteristics of the interviewed farmers are presented in Fig. 2. Accordingly, 75.3% of them were male, while a significantly lower proportion of female farmers (24.7%) were interviewed (x2 = 91.77, df = 1, p 0.001). Regarding age groups, the number of interviewed farmers who were between 41 and 60 years old (58%) was significantly higher than those who were 40 years old (23.2%) and > 60 years old (18.5%) (x2 = 28.38, df = 2, p 0.001). Farmers' ages and barley cultivation experience are significantly and positively Pearson correlated (r = 0.90, P < 0.001), but negatively correlated with the number of barley varieties cultivated (r = − 0.181, P < 0.001). Most of the interviewed farmers (91.3%) were married, followed by widowed (8.1%). The unmarried farmers were the least represented (0.6%). The majority of farmers (48.5%) completed primary education along with agriculture work, while 36.1% did not complete formal education, and only 1.4% had a certificate or above award for formal education. More educated farmers have less experience in the cultivation of barley landraces (r = − 0.375, p < 0.001). Educational level was also negatively correlated (r = − 0.079) with the number of barely varieties that the farmers cultivate, although the correlation is not significant (p = 0.134). The majority of farmers (39.2%) have two to five children.

Fig. 2figure 2

Sociodemographic characteristics of the respondents

Barley growing experience of farmers’ and land size

The information generated during this study was obtained from farmers who had been cultivating barley for a period of 4–55 years. According to farmer responses, the majority (55.6%) have been using local barley varieties for more than 20 years. In the Hetosa district, all farmers grow barley on ≥ 0.5 hectares of land (Fig. 3), and the greatest number of farmers (59.7%) reported having been growing barley for the last 31 years or more. The greatest number of farmers in Misha has the shortest period of barley cultivation experience (Table 1). The majority of the farmers (57.1%) grow barley on 0.5–0.75 hectares, followed by those who grow on > 0.75–1 hectares. Among the three study districts, farmers who grow barley on > 1 hectare were encountered only in the Hetosa district of the Arsi zone.

Fig. 3figure 3

Land size allocated for barley cultivation

Table 1 Barley cultivation experience of farmersLocal names, their meanings and farmers’ preferred features of barley

The barley varieties cited by farmers, local names of barley varieties along with their meanings, seed color, number of rows, and summary of farmers’ preferred and non-preferred traits are presented in Table 2. A total of 68 barley varieties (landraces and improved) with distinct local names were reported by the interviewed farmers. Of these, 22 were recorded from Misha district, 15 from Gumer district and 31 barley varieties were recorded from Hetosa district. Farmers use different characteristic features of barley, such as length of spikelet, dehulling, digestibility, row type, seed size, seed color, yield, kernel color, plant height, and place of origin, use values, and the person who introduced the barley to the locality for the first time to assign local names.

Table 2 Local names of barley varieties cited by farmers, along with their meanings, seed color, number of rows, and summary of farmers preferred and non-preferred traits

Farmers' preferred barley has characteristics such as seed and food quality, seed color, flour quality, flavor, taste, hull less, early maturity, high yield, high market demand, ease of dehulling, large spikelet, disease resistance, and drought and lodging tolerance, while low yield, late maturity, requirement of fertile soil, susceptibility to disease and drought, shattering problems, and low market demand are among the traits that were reported by farmers as non-preferred characteristics of barley.

Barley varieties by seed color and row type

White seed-colored barley varieties were the most widely distributed, encountered at 41.1% of farmers’ fields, followed by black seed-colored barley varieties, which were encountered at 29.4% of farmers’ fields. Regarding the row type, six row type barley varieties, which were identified by most farmers as high yielding, were the most widely distributed barley varieties, being recorded in 47.1% of farmers’ fields. Irregular row type barley varieties were the least recorded (10.3%) (Table 3).

Table 3 Distribution of barley varieties by seed color and row typeStatus of the number of barley varieties used for cultivation

In the last 20–30 years, 124 farmers (34.8%) have grown five or more barley varieties. Currently, however, 253 (70.4%) farmers grow a maximum of 3 barley varieties (Table 4). An independent t test showed that the mean number of barley varieties (4.77) cultivated by farmers at household level before 2–3 decades was significantly greater than the number of barley varieties currently cultivated on their farm (2.66) (P < 0.001). The number of barley local varieties cultivated at household level has been decreasing over recent years although the frequency varies from district to district. The introduction of improved barley cultivars was the main reason for the decrease in the number of barley local varieties as perceived by all of the interviewed farmers. Soil fertility loss, land size decrease, climate change, low yield of some barley local varieties and low market demand were other reasons, which were reported by 40.1%, 3.4%, 59.1% and 24.1% of farmers, respectively. Fluctuation of rainfall, which affects the date of sowing, maturation, and harvesting, was also reported by some farmers as a reason for the decrease in the number of barley local varieties.

Table 4 Number of barley cultivated per household based on farmer responses (Number of respondents and percentage in bracket)Purposes of barley cultivation and production at household level

Primary purposes for the cultivation of barley and the mean amount of barley produced at household level (kg) in the study districts are presented in Table 5. The study indicated that most farmers cultivate barley for both home consumption and sale. In the Misha district, the mean amount of barley produced for home consumption (329 kg) was not significantly different from the mean amount of barley varieties produced for sale (361 kg) (P = 0.167). In the Gumer district, however, the mean amount of barley varieties produced at the household level for consumption (816 kg) was significantly lower than the amount produced for sale (1451 kg) (P < 0.001). Similarly, in Hetosa district, the mean amount of barley varieties produced at household level for home consumption (2057 kg) was significantly lower than the amount produced for sale (2450 kg) (P < 0.05). In general, in the study districts, the amount of barley produced at household level for sale (1420 kg) was significantly greater than the mean amount of barley produced at household level for home consumption (1067 kg) (P < 0.001) (Table 5).

Table 5 Purpose of barley cultivation and the amount of barley productionEnd use: local foods and drinks prepared from varieties

Different barley varieties are used for various dishes and beverages. Farmers are aware with the barley varieties that they grow and how they are used. Table 6 lists the most widely recognized barley varieties, as well as the local meals and beverages made from them.

Table 6 Local foods and beverages prepared from most commonly cited barleySeed selection and conservation practice of barley

The majority of farmers (48%) save their own barley seeds for the next growing season, unless farmers want to change the barley variety that the use. The selection was made after harvesting grain yield. Every year, 10% of the farmers buy barley seed for sowing from local markets. Only 6% of farmers receive better barley variety seeds from the agricultural office. Others cultivate their own local barley seeds as well as those obtained from markets, neighbors, and the district's agriculture sector each year (Fig. 4). Some of the farmers store their seed in “Shat”, traditionally made from bamboo and animal dung, while others stored it in plastic sacks for the next sowing season. To boost soil fertility and maximize productivity, farmers cultivate barley types in rotation with other crops. The seed is sawn after the farm has been plowed 3–5 times by oxen and hand hoe land preparation.

Fig. 4figure 4

Barley seed sources for cultivation

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