Global HIV & AIDS statistics — fact sheet []. 2020 [Available from: https://www.unaids.org/en/resources/fact-sheet. Accessed 1 Aug 2022.

Wandeler G, Johnson LF, Egger M. Trends in life expectancy of HIV-positive adults on ART across the globe: comparisons with general population. Curr Opin HIV AIDS. 2016;11(5):492–500.

CAS  PubMed  PubMed Central  Article  Google Scholar 

Jaramillo J, Pagkas-Bather J, Waters K, Shackelford LB, Campbell RD, Henry J, et al. Perceptions of sexual risk, PrEP services, and peer navigation support among HIV-negative Latinx and Black men who have sex with men (MSM) residing in western Washington. Sex Res Soc Policy. 2021:1–11.

Rao A, Schwartz S, Sabin K, Wheeler T, Zhao J, Hargreaves J, et al. HIV-related data among key populations to inform evidence-based responses: protocol of a systematic review. Syst Rev. 2018;7(1):220.

PubMed  PubMed Central  Article  Google Scholar 

Sherman SG, Srikrishnan AK, Rivett KA, Liu SH, Solomon S, Celentano DD. Acceptability of a microenterprise intervention among female sex workers in Chennai, India. AIDS Behav. 2010;14(3):649–57.

PubMed  Article  Google Scholar 

Kahneman D. A perspective on judgment and choice: mapping bounded rationality. Am Psychol. 2003;58(9):697–720.

PubMed  Article  Google Scholar 

Thaler R, Sunstein CR. Nudge: improving decisions about health, wealth, and happiness. Yale University Press; 2008.

Simon C, Tagliabue M. Feeding the behavioral revolution: contributions of behavior analysis to nudging and vice versa. J Behav Econ Policy. 2018;2(1):91–7.

Thaler Richard H, Benartzi S. Save More Tomorrow™: using behavioral economics to increase employee saving. J Polit Econ. 2004;112(S1):S164–87.

Article  Google Scholar 

How Amsterdam Schipol reduced toilet cleaning costs by 8% with fake urinal bugs. Available from: https://simpleflying.com/how-amsterdam-schipol-reduced-toilet-cleaning-costs-by-8-with-fake-urinal-bugs/. Accessed 1 Aug 2022.

Applying behavioural insights to reduce fraud, error and debt. Available from: http://38r8om2xjhhl25mw24492dir.wpengine.netdna-cdn.com/wp-content/uploads/2015/07/BIT_FraudErrorDebt_accessible.pdf. Accessed 1 Aug 2022.

MINDSPACE: influencing behaviour through public policy. Available from: https://www.bi.team/wp-content/uploads/2015/07/MINDSPACE.pdf. Accessed 1 Aug 2022.

Arksey H, O’Malley L. Scoping studies: towards a methodological framework. Int J Soc Res Methodol. 2005;8(1):19–32.

Article  Google Scholar 

Transparent reporting of systematic reviews and meta-analyses. PRISMA for scoping reviews. Available from: http://www.prisma-statement.org/Extensions/ScopingReviews. Accessed 1 Aug 2022.

Data for high income, middle income, low income. Available from: https://data.worldbank.org/?locations=XD-XP-XM. Accessed 1 Aug 2022.

Glasman LR, Dickson-Gomez J, Lechuga J, Tarima S, Bodnar G, de Mendoza LR. Using peer-referral chains with incentives to promote HIV testing and identify undiagnosed HIV infections among crack users in San Salvador. AIDS Behav. 2016;20(6):1236–43.

PubMed  PubMed Central  Article  Google Scholar 

Edwards GG, Reback CJ, Cunningham WE, Hilliard CL, McWells C, Mukherjee S, et al. Mobile-enhanced prevention support study for men who have sex with men and transgender women leaving jail: protocol for a randomized controlled trial. JMIR Res Protoc. 2020;9(9):e18106.

PubMed  PubMed Central  Article  Google Scholar 

Jennings Mayo-Wilson L, Coleman J, Timbo F, Latkin C, Torres Brown ER, Butler AI, et al. Acceptability of a feasibility randomized clinical trial of a microenterprise intervention to reduce sexual risk behaviors and increase employment and HIV preventive practices (EMERGE) in young adults: a mixed methods assessment. BMC Public Health. 2020;20(1):N.PAG-N.PAG.

Lu Y, Ni Y, Li X, He X, Huang S, Zhou Y, et al. Monetary incentives and peer referral in promoting digital network-based secondary distribution of HIV self-testing among men who have sex with men in China: study protocol for a three-arm randomized controlled trial. BMC Public Health. 2020;20(1):911.

PubMed  PubMed Central  Article  Google Scholar 

McCoy SI, Shiu K, Martz TE, Smith CD, Mattox L, Gluth DR, et al. Improving the efficiency of HIV testing with peer recruitment, financial incentives, and the involvement of persons living with HIV infection. J Acquir Immune Defic Syndr. 2013;63(2):e56-63.

PubMed  Article  Google Scholar 

Tun W, Sebastian MP, Sharma V, Madan I, Souidi S, Lewis D, et al. Strategies for recruiting injection drug users for HIV prevention services in Delhi, India. Harm Reduct J. 2013;10:16.

PubMed  PubMed Central  Article  Google Scholar 

Godlonton S, Thornton R. Peer effects in learning HIV results. J Dev Econ. 2012;97(1):118–29.

PubMed  PubMed Central  Article  Google Scholar 

Das A, George B, Ranebennur V, Parthasarathy MR, Shreenivas GS, Todankar P, et al. Getting to the first 90: incentivized peer mobilizers promote HIV testing services to men who have sex with men using social media in Mumbai, India. Glob Health Sci Pract. 2019;7(3):469–77.

PubMed  PubMed Central  Article  Google Scholar 

Bazant E, Mahler H, Machaku M, Lemwayi R, Kulindwa Y, Gisenge Lija J, et al. A randomized evaluation of a demand creation lottery for voluntary medical male circumcision among adults in Tanzania. J Acquir Immune Defic Syndr. 2016;72 Suppl 4:S280–7.

PubMed  Google Scholar 

Thomas R, Skovdal M, Galizzi MM, Schaefer R, Moorhouse L, Nyamukapa C, et al. Improving risk perception and uptake of voluntary medical male circumcision with peer-education sessions and incentives, in Manicaland, East Zimbabwe: study protocol for a pilot randomised trial. Trials. 2020;21(1):108.

PubMed  PubMed Central  Article  Google Scholar 

Zanolini A, Bolton C, Lyabola LL, Phiri G, Samona A, Kaonga A, et al. Feasibility and effectiveness of a peer referral incentive intervention to promote male circumcision uptake in Zambia. J Acquir Immune Defic Syndr. 2016;72 Suppl 4:S257–63.

PubMed  Google Scholar 

Mayo-Wilson LJ, Ssewamala FM. Financial and behavioral economic factors associated with HIV testing in AIDS-affected adolescents in Uganda: a cross-sectional analysis. J Health Care Poor Underserved. 2019;30(1):339–57.

PubMed  Article  Google Scholar 

Moorhouse L, Schaefer R, Thomas R, Nyamukapa C, Skovdal M, Hallett TB, et al. Application of the HIV prevention cascade to identify, develop and evaluate interventions to improve use of prevention methods: examples from a study in east Zimbabwe. J Int AIDS Soc. 2019;22 Suppl 4:e25309.

PubMed  Google Scholar 

Thornton RL. The demand for, and impact of, learning HIV status. Am Econ Rev. 2008;98(5):1829–63.

PubMed  PubMed Central  Article  Google Scholar 

Linnemayr S, MacCarthy S, Kim A, Giguere R, Carballo-Dieguez A, Barreras JL. Behavioral economics-based incentives supported by mobile technology on HIV knowledge and testing frequency among Latino/a men who have sex with men and transgender women: Protocol for a randomized pilot study to test intervention feasibility and acceptability. Trials. 2018;19(1):540.

PubMed  PubMed Central  Article  Google Scholar 

Gichane MW, Wamoyi J, Atkins K, Balvanz P, Maman S, Majani E, et al. The influence of cash transfers on engagement in transactional sex and partner choice among adolescent girls and young women in Northwest Tanzania. Cult Health Sex. 2020:1–15.

Beadnell B, Baker S, Knox K, Stielstra S, Morrison DM, DeGooyer E, et al. The influence of psychosocial difficulties on women’s attrition in an HIV/STD prevention programme. AIDS Care. 2003;15(6):807–20.

CAS  PubMed  Article  Google Scholar 

Choko AT, Corbett EL, Stallard N, Maheswaran H, Lepine A, Johnson CC, et al. HIV self-testing alone or with additional interventions, including financial incentives, and linkage to care or prevention among male partners of antenatal care clinic attendees in Malawi: an adaptive multi-arm, multi-stage cluster randomised trial. PLoS Med. 2019;16(1):e1002719.

PubMed  PubMed Central  Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

Choko AT, Fielding K, Johnson CC, Kumwenda MK, Chilongosi R, Baggaley RC, et al. Partner-delivered HIV self-test kits with and without financial incentives in antenatal care and index patients with HIV in Malawi: a three-arm, cluster-randomised controlled trial. Lancet Glob Health. 2021;9(7):e977–88.

PubMed  PubMed Central  Article  Google Scholar 

Sibanda EL, Tumushime M, Mufuka J, Mavedzenge SN, Gudukeya S, Bautista-Arredondo S, et al. Effect of non-monetary incentives on uptake of couples’ counselling and testing among clients attending mobile HIV services in rural Zimbabwe: a cluster-randomised trial. Lancet Glob Health. 2017;5(9):e907–15.

PubMed  PubMed Central  Article  Google Scholar 

Sibanda EL, Neuman M, Tumushime M, Mangenah C, Hatzold K, Watadzaushe C, et al. Community-based HIV self-testing: a cluster-randomised trial of supply-side financial incentives and time-trend analysis of linkage to antiretroviral therapy in Zimbabwe. BMJ Glob Health. 2021;6(Suppl 4):07.

Google Scholar 

Wagner AD, Njuguna IN, Neary J, Omondi VO, Otieno VA, Babigumira J, et al. Financial Incentives to Increase Uptake of Pediatric HIV Testing (FIT): study protocol for a randomised controlled trial in Kenya. BMJ Open. 2018;8(10):e024310.

PubMed  PubMed Central  Article  Google Scholar 

Gambone GF, Feldman MB, Thomas-Ferraioli AY, Shubert V, Ghose T. Integrating financial incentives for viral load suppression into HIV care coordination programs: considerations for development and implementation. J Public Health Manag Pract. 2020;26(5):471–80.

PubMed  Article  Google Scholar 

MacCarthy S, Mendoza-Graf A, Wagner Z, Barreras JL, Kim A, Giguere R, et al. The acceptability and feasibility of a pilot study examining the impact of a mobile technology-based intervention informed by behavioral economics to improve HIV knowledge and testing frequency among Latinx sexual minority men and transgender women. BMC Public Health. 2021;21(1):341.

PubMed  PubMed Central  Article  Google Scholar 

MacCarthy S, Wagner Z, Barreras JL, Kim A, Menodza-Graf AC, Giguere R, et al. Brief report: Using behavioral economics to increase HIV knowledge and testing among Latinx sexual minority men and transgender women: a quasi-experimental pilot study. J Acquir Immune Defic Syndr. 2020;85(2):189–94.

PubMed  PubMed Central  Article  Google Scholar 

O’Connell S, Lillis D, Cotter A, O’Dea S, Tuite H, Fleming C, et al. Opt-out panel testing for HIV, hepatitis B and hepatitis C in an urban emergency department: a pilot study. PLoS ONE. 2016;11(3):e0150546.

PubMed  PubMed Central  Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

Tam G, Wong SYS. A cross-sectional study comparing two opt-out HIV testing strategies in the out-patient setting. Front Public Health. 2021;9(664494):664494.

PubMed  PubMed Central  Article  Google Scholar 

Montoy JCC, Dow WH, Kaplan BC. Patient choice in opt-in, active choice, and opt-out HIV screening: randomized clinical trial. BMJ. 2016;352:h6895.

Creek TL, Ntumy R, Seipone K, Smith M, Mogodi M, Smit M, et al. Successful introduction of routine opt-out HIV testing in antenatal care in Botswana. J Acquir Immune Defic Syndr. 2007;45(1):102–7.

PubMed  Article  Google Scholar 

Haukoos JS, Hopkins E, Conroy AA, Silverman M, Byyny RL, Eisert S, et al. Routine opt-out rapid HIV screening and detection of HIV infection in emergency department patients. JAMA. 2010;304(3):284–92.

CAS  PubMed  Article  Google Scholar 

White DA, Scribner AN, Vahidnia F, Dideum PJ, Gordon DM, Frazee BW, et al. HIV screening in an urban emergency department: comparison of screening using an opt-in versus an opt-out approach. Ann Emerg Med. 2011;58(1 Suppl 1):S89-95.

PubMed  Article  Google Scholar 

Christensen A, Russ S, Rambaran N, Wright SW. Patient perspectives on opt-out HIV screening in a Guyanese emergency department. Int Health. 2012;4(3):185–91.

PubMed  Article