Diversity of medicinal plants within the study area

The THs of the study area use many TMPs, especially species of the Asteraceae and many other families (81) to cure various human and livestock ailments. In contrast, the studies in southern Ethiopia [40, 41] indicated Lamiaceae, in Mideast and Midwest of the country Ethiopia [42, 43] is Fabaceae and in Southeast [44] Solanaceae was the most frequently used family of TMPs.

THs showed preference for herbs to other growth forms of traditional medicinal plants. Similar observations were reported from other areas [40, 41, 43,44,45,46] except in the mid-eastern parts of the country [42] which is tree. Their general habitation around natural forests and the availability of herbs throughout the study area and their ease of collection may have been the main reasons for this. Leaf is the most frequently used, and the root is the next TMPs part for treating ailments similar to other areas [40,41,42, 44, 45] except in the mid-western parts of the country [43] where root and then the leaf comes next. The leaves were preferred for preparation of TM because of the constituency of bioactive compounds, easily accessible and mostly using the food as medicine. The result showed the identical trend elsewhere [13, 47]. The use of leaves sustains the plant than harvesting of the roots. Root use needs mechanisms to shift to the use of other parts of the plant, otherwise implements sustainable utilization modes to reduce the risk of loss. A study undertaken in Kelala [46] and Mana Angetu [48] had also reported the abusive harvesting of roots.

Informants reported that most TMPs are used in decoction to dissolve the chemicals of the material and that they extract its constituents using water and local alcohol (Harak’iya). This study agrees with the study in Tigray, northern Ethiopia [49], which reported the use of locally made drinking alcohol for extraction. They use honey to shun the uncomfortable taste of the preparation. This report agrees with the study reported from India [50].

Ethnobotanical knowledge of medicinal plantsAcquisition of traditional medicinal knowledge

Year of healing practice and age of TH are related. The age and stay within the area have positive associations. They should practice with at least the general public traditional medicinal knowledge. Similar was reported to Kenya [19]. This is because of the formation of social intimacy, marriage, and relativity that increases repeatedly visiting community members and chance of sharing skills and knowledge as well as outreaching of knowledge about him/her in the area.

Most of the THs get hold of their awareness from their families in words with great privacy usually at adulthood. The report of west Showa in Ethiopia [51] indicated a similar norm. This is because to keep secrecy, the retaining of knowledge and practice in the family root is needed, the actual training takes long time exercise, and the active and trusted juvenile to keep secrecy and oath is distinguished. Some acquire following shape and color resemblance of nature (the plant) for treatment like in Tragia cinerea and Asparagus racemosus (climbing behavior) and Abrus precatorius (its climbing behavior and color of seed is observed), Cynodon dactylon, Dichondra repens, and Indigofera spicata (runner), Plantago lanceolata (apical shoot resemblance), Polyscias fulva and Dracaena steudneri (straight stem with top branches) used for snakebite, Cuscuta kilimanjari (its climbing and running behavior and color of stem is observed) for ascaris, Ensete ventricosum (red variety color is observed) for retained placenta, and Gomphocarpus physocarpus (its hairy balls were observed) for swelling of gland /Lymph adenitis. But, unless the juvenile person who receives the knowledge is interested, documented the event and has a lively memory of understanding and knows the said plants of the realm, there is a leak of information.

Most of the time disease occurred within the study area was human suffering diseases. The study results indicated that TH developed knowledge and filled the gap of the fashionable healthcare system through treating the identical pathological state by using many traditional plants like just in case of liver problems and diarrhea. The identical was reported for south central Ethiopia [52]. The reasons are as follows: 1. Most of them embark in inaccessible areas where there is scarcity of medical institutions, far away from these infrastructures. 2. The traditional medicinal knowledge determines the extent of the employment of medicinal plants for medicinal purposes. 3. Because the burden and practice is exercised in a given area for a very long time, it becomes the culture or trend of the community. TH with knowledge of many medicinal plants has positive association with family size. This is because they need to increase information on how to take health care of their family members with least expenditures and struggle to sustain their relations in several aspects. The similar observation was reported to Wolaita of Ethiopia [53]. Because the number of medicinal plant’s knowledge increases, the amount of diseases practiced to treat increases. TMPs used for the identical disease are more likely to be biologically active and need for phytochemical and antibacterial study. The same study was reported in west Showa of Ethiopia [51]. They claim that curing diseases which were scientifically proven to be incurable like cancers became curable by traditional healing practice of the study area. The identical was reported to the Pinyin society [54].

The TMPs used and their sources

Most THs reported collecting their TMPs from natural forests. They also collect them from different sources like markets, institutions (churchyards and graves and schools, farmers’ training centers), rangelands, bushes, marshy areas, and sides of roads. As age increases, both the source and number of TMPs were increased to a certain middle age. However, it decreases beyond 60 years. This is because elders are tired of going to distant places and hence tend to grow them in their homestead and practice their children on their knowledge.

The women, children, and the poor were selling fresh edible and medicinal plants in the market which is different from the report of the culture of Guji in Ethiopia [55] that strictly forbade selling TMP in the market. The sellers within the local market were not TH but local traders and vendors of various materials like spices. This report was similar to the report of Bench and elsewhere in Ethiopia [56, 57]. There is no purposeful marketing of TMPs in the open market. To monitor the practice of traditional medicine needs the legalized system, special spaces, and procedures. This study is different from the report for western Kenya [21].

Knowledge of dosage form and side effects

THs of the study area know the effect of overdose use of some TMPs on the health of patients. This study result is different from the report of most communities of Africa [58] that indicates no regulated use and adverse effect [59]. They provide differential usage information and prescription to their patients and determine the dosage supporting different conditions, status of patients, and nature of the ailment with precautions. Otherwise, they refer their patients to the best practitioners or to the modern health system before they deliver the service. This study agrees with the study of Misha Woreda in Hadiya Zone [60] and works reported from India [37] and the Pinyin society of China [54]. This is a practice that they developed a very long time ago and the frequent practice for increasing frequency of customer visitation, not to lose their customers, to point out their ability of identifying the particular disease of the patient and being open to the modernized system of medication in traditional healing practice. The same report from a study undertaken in western Kenya [21] indicated that consumers usually choose traditional medicine because they share common traditional culture, beliefs, relationships, social life, and environment with the traditional medicine practitioners.

Traditional medication as culture

Cultural norms of diversifying the dining table and homestead and special preparations of traditional public medication within the community helped them to guard themselves from many diseases and famine, environmental stress and to conserve multipurpose plants. Reports from elsewhere [61,62,63] also support this norm. This can be because the management designed and practiced by early elders went through centuries of practice. The practice within the community became trendy and developed to the culture that enforces the community members to implement at household level.

Threats of TMPs and associated community knowledgeDependence on natural forests for treating ailment and other uses

Healers mostly use multiple plants or multiple plant parts to treat one health problem in order to extend the strength and efficacy of the drug. The plant secures a high UD, CV, UV, and RI score that indicates there are many use reports for that plant, while a low score indicates fewer use reports cited by the traditional healers. There were highly diverse uses (H = 5.465619632) in the study area. There was a similar report to the Sheka Zone which is 5:155 [64]. This is because both of them were from Southwestern Ethiopia and surrounded by natural forests which increased the interaction to the people living around and encroached. The species were recorded with 2 to 32 uses, but the study to the Bolivian Amazon reported it from one to more than three [36]. This also indicates that the species were the most preferred [37]. This might be due to easily accessible, easily harvested and have high familiarized utilization.

Comparison of the plants said to be used by the people in different parts of Ethiopia with those of the study area showed some interesting observations. The lists of medicinal plants reported in previously published scientific articles were compared with the results of the present study. Of the recorded 274 TMP species of the present study area, 166 had common uses, while 108 were recorded peculiarly in the study area (Table 8; Additional file 5). The reports to Hawassa Zuria of Ethiopia recorded five endemic medicinal plant species [41], but in the present study, there were 11 endemic traditional medicinal plant species to Ethiopia documented including Aloe otallensis, Coccinia abyssinica, Echinops kebericho, Eragrostis tef, Erythrina brucei, Lippia adoensis, Pycnostachys abyssinica, Satureja paradoxa, Satureja punctata, Trifolium decorum, and Vepris daniellii, confirmed from list of endemic plants of Ethiopia and Eritrea [65].

Table 8 Presence and number of common TMP species in different locations and cultures shared with Dawuro communities as counted from some articles published during 2007–2022

Apart from the 108 peculiarly recorded traditional medicinal plant species in the study area, the uniquely recorded species with their use were novel to this study. Some of them were Carduus nyassanus, Dichondra repens, Dissotis canescens, Entada abyssinica, Euphorbia hirta, Hydnora abyssinica, Indigofera arrecta, Launaea capitata, Pittosporum abyssinicum, Plectranthus ornatus, Solanum capsicoides, Spilanthes mauritiana, and Vernonia theophrastifolia.

Ethnobotanically, Carduus nyassanus has novelty of use for blackleg, liver problems, wound healing, scabies, snakebite and anaphylactic shock (devil sickness/evil spirit). Dichondra repens is used for headache, wound healing, pyoderma, tinea capitis (ringworm), snakebite (any) and venom, swelling of nymph gland, and bat droppings and its urine. Dissotis canescens is used for insect venom, liver problems, snakebite (Goosiya), wound, and evil eye. Entada abyssinica is used for snakebite (any), wound, cancer, onchocerciasis, impetigo, liver problems, fever, allergic case, and eye disease. Euphorbia hirta is used for liver problems, ringworm, impetigo, snakebite, and wound healing. Hydnora abyssinica is used for colic pain, rheumatism, stomachache, body swelling, and wound healing. Indigofera arrecta is used for stomachache, colic pain, blackleg, and swelling of gland. Launaea capitata is used for stomachache, anaphylactic shock, colic pain, liver problem, tinea capitis (ringworm), snakebite, wound, and evil eye. Pittosporum abyssinicum is used peculiarly for intestinal problems, internal parasites, urine problems, diarrhea, swelling of gland, ascaris, diarrhea, and vomiting no elsewhere reported for use. Plectranthus ornatus is used for rheumatism, stomachache, internal parasites, and gastritis. Solanum capsicoides is used for cough, common cold, rheumatism, fever, allergic case, eye disease, and toothache. Spilanthes mauritiana is used for stomachache, evil eye, tonsillitis, animal fattening, milk yield, and dust removal from the eye. Vernonia theophrastifolia is used uniquely for anaphylactic shock (devil sickness/evil spirit), eye, wound healing, onchocerciasis, impetigo, colic pain, snakebite, and liver problem (hepatitis, cirrhosis, scaring).

In addition to this, the result of comparison of ethnobotanical studies carried out in different times and parts of Ethiopia with this study also indicated the novelty of the use of some traditional medicinal plants. In the study area, Centella asiatiaca is used for gum problem, headache, pyoderma, ringworm, snakebite (any) and venom, swelling of lymph gland and bat droppings and urine, but in Sheka [64] it is used for healing only wound/warts. Clematis hirsuta is used in the study area peculiarly for liver problem, tinea capitis (ringworm), fecal cases, and used as detergent. It is also used similarly for snakebite/repellent, wound healing (inflammation, cancer), and headache (painful) in Assosa [43], in North Wollo [66] and in Adwa [68]. In the study area, Commelina africana is used for rabies but in Sidama [41] for skin diseases. Commelina benghalensis is used for diarrhea and tinea capitis (ringworm); in addition to this, it is used for milk yield and animal fattening, but in Sidama [69] it is used for skin diseases (Chirt).

In the study area, Cordia africana is used differently for wound healing, onchocerciasis, and hemorrhage/hemorrhoids from other computed areas and similarly to Sheka [64] and North Wollo [66] in using it for skin diseases like impetigo and jaundice. But, still, it is used for malaria, diarrhea, and dental problem in Amaro [44], for stomachache in Sidama [41], for Mich’ acute febrile illness and abdominal illness in Adwa [68], and for involuntary urination in bed and fire burn in North Shewa [49].

In the study area, Cyathula cylindrica is used uniquely for snakebite, anthrax, blackleg, and eye disease, but it is reported to Sheka [64] using it for skin disorder. Cymbopogon citratus is used for blood pressure, colic pain, and rheumatism but for stomachache in North Shewa [49]. In the study area, Cynodon dactylon is used peculiarly for wound healing, shingles (herpes zoster), tonsillitis, snakebite (K'arasha), and stomachache but for eye diseases in North Shewa [49]. Cynoglossum amplifolium is used for stomachache, dysentery, diarrhea of children but for Mich in Amaro [44] and for cutaneous sclerosis, hypersensitivity, and sun burn in Sheka [64]. Cynoglossum lanceolatum is used for stomachache, snakebite, dysentery, diarrhea of children but for eyelids with cutaneous inflammation, hypersensitivity, and sun burn in Sheka [64]. Embelia schimperi is used novelty for gonorrhea and liver problems but similarly for intestinal parasites like tapeworm and ascaris as reported to Sheka [64] and West Gojjam [67].

In the study area, Ensete ventricosum is used novelty for mouth and foot disease, anthrax, liver problem, blood clotting, and earache, but it is used similarly as it was reported for wound healing (scabies), animal fattening, and mechanical break of bone in Sidama [41, 69], its red variety for retained placenta in Central Ethiopia [52] and in Sidama [41], for diarrhea in Sheka [64] and in Sidama [69]. But, it was reported to be used differently for amoebic dysentery in Amaro [44], for ascariasis, skin rush, and spider bite in Sheka [64], for inducing abortion, strength, and improved immune function in Sidama [69]. Eragrostis tef is used as a novelty for anemia and appetizer, but it is used as antidote for the snake's venom in Sheka [64]. Erythrina abyssinica has used novelty for liver problems (hepatitis, cirrhosis, and scarring) and stomachache but differently used for lice, eye disease, arm pain, eye sclerosis, and tonsillitis in Sheka [64].

In the study area, Euphorbia platyphyllos has novelty use for liver problems, stomachache, colic pain, skin diseases (like tinea capitis/ringworm), and gland swelling. But its latex is used for retarding poisonous in West Gojjam [67]. Girardinia diversifolia is used exceptionally for rabies, diarrhea, and animal fattening but used for tumor/warts in Sheka [64]. Indigofera spicata is used for dysentery, diarrhea of children, colic pain, evil eye, and gastritis but as similarly reported to Amaro [44], it is used for snake bite and scabies and to Arba Minch Zuria [40] for stomachache during menstruation and wound healing. Juniperus procera is used for body swelling, poison feeding (shooshuwa), snakebite, diarrhea, rheumatism, bedbug, and late placenta, but similarly used for blackleg as it was reported to Arba Minch Zuria [40] and for diarrhea in Sidama [41], and differently used in Arba Minch Zuria [40] for dressing wound (created by Leishmanial), urination prob