Liu YC, Kuo RL, Shih SR. COVID-19: The first documented coronavirus pandemic in history. Biomed J. 2020.

Dhakal BP, Sweitzer NK, Indik JH, Acharya D, William P. SARS-CoV-2 infection and cardiovascular disease: COVID-19 heart. Heart Lung Circ. 2020.

Lee IC, Huo TI, Huang YH. Gastrointestinal and liver manifestations in patients with COVID-19. J Chin Med Assoc. 2020.

Nardo AD, Schneeweiss-Gleixner M, Bakail M, Dixon ED, Lax SF, Trauner M. Pathophysiological mechanisms of liver injury in COVID-19. Liver Int. 2021.

Cataldi M, Pignataro G, Taglialatela M. Neurobiology of coronaviruses: Potential relevance for COVID-19. Neurobiol Dis. 2020.

Nalbandian A, Sehgal K, Gupta A, Madhavan MV, McGroder C, Stevens JS, et al. Post-acute COVID-19 syndrome. Nature Med. 2021.

• Ali AM, Kunugi H. Skeletal muscle damage in covid-19: a call for action. Medicina (Lithuania). 2021;57(4):372. https://doi.org/10.3390/medicina57040372. Muscle loss in symptomatic COVID-19 patients is associated with a poor prognosis of the disease. Particular attention to longer-term consequences of muscle loss in recovering COVID-19 patients is necessary.

Guan W, Ni Z, Hu Y, Liang W, Ou C, He J, et al. Clinical characteristics of coronavirus disease 2019 in China. New England J Med. 2020.

Mao L, Jin H, Wang M, Hu Y, Chen S, He Q, et al. Neurologic manifestations of hospitalized patients with coronavirus disease 2019 in Wuhan. China JAMA Neurology. 2020;77(6):683–90. https://doi.org/10.1001/jamaneurol.2020.1127.

Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

Widyadharma IPE, Sari NNSP, Pradnyaswari KE, Yuwana KT, Adikarya IPGD, Tertia C, et al. Pain as clinical manifestations of COVID-19 infection and its management in the pandemic era: a literature review. Egypt J Neurol Psychiatry Neurosurg. 2020.

Zhang J, Wang X, Jia X, Li J, Hu K, Chen G, et al. Risk factors for disease severity, unimprovement, and mortality in COVID-19 patients in Wuhan. Chin Clin Microbiol Infect. 2020;26(6):767–72. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cmi.2020.04.012.

CAS  Article  Google Scholar 

Do Nascimento IJB, Cacic N, Abdulazeem HM, von Groote TC, Jayarajah U, Weerasekara I, et al. Novel coronavirus infection (Covid-19) in humans: a scoping review and meta-analysis. J Clin Med. 2020.

Romero-Sánchez CM, Díaz-Maroto I, Fernández-Díaz E, Sánchez-Larsen Á, Layos-Romero A, García-García J, et al. Neurologic manifestations in hospitalized patients with COVID-19: the ALBACOVID registry. Neurology. 2020.

Zhou F, Yu T, Du R, Fan G, Liu Y, Liu Z, et al. Clinical course and risk factors for mortality of adult inpatients with COVID-19 in Wuhan, China: a retrospective cohort study. The Lancet. 2020.

Beydon M, Chevalier K, Al Tabaa O, Hamroun S, Delettre AS, Thomas M, et al. Myositis as a manifestation of SARS-CoV-2. Ann Rheum Dis. 2021.

Islam B, Ahmed M, Islam Z, Begum SM. Severe acute myopathy following SARS-CoV-2 infection: a case report and review of recent literature. Skelet Muscle. 2021.

Uslu S. Myositis due to COVID-19. Postgrad Med J. 2021.

Zhang H, Charmchi Z, Seidman RJ, Anziska Y, Velayudhan V, Perk J. COVID-19–associated myositis with severe proximal and bulbar weakness. Muscle Nerve. 2020.

Madia F, Merico B, Primiano G, Cutuli SL, De Pascale G, Servidei S. Acute myopathic quadriplegia in patients with COVID-19 in the intensive care unit. Neurology. 2020.

Gobbi M, Bezzoli E, Ismelli F, Trotti G, Cortellezzi S, Meneguzzo F, et al. Skeletal muscle mass, sarcopenia and rehabilitation outcomes in post-acute COVID-19 patients. J Clin Med. 2021.

Wierdsma NJ, Kruizenga HM, Konings LA, Krebbers D, Jorissen JR, Joosten MHI, et al. Poor nutritional status, risk of sarcopenia and nutrition related complaints are prevalent in COVID-19 patients during and after hospital admission. Clin Nutr ESPEN. 2021.

Damanti S, Cristel G, Ramirez GA, Bozzolo EP, Da Prat V, Gobbi A, et al. Influence of reduced muscle mass and quality on ventilator weaning and complications during intensive care unit stay in COVID-19 patients. Clin Nutr. 2021.

Anwar H, Al Lawati A. Adolescent COVID-19-associated fatal rhabdomyolysis. J Prim Care Community Health. 2020.

Gefen AM, Palumbo N, Nathan SK, Singer PS, Castellanos-Reyes LJ, Sethna CB. Pediatric COVID-19-associated rhabdomyolysis: a case report. Pediatr Nephrol. 2020.

Husain R, Corcuera-Solano I, Dayan E, Jacobi AH, Huang M. Rhabdomyolysis as a manifestation of a severe case of COVID-19: a case report. Radiol Case Rep. 2020.

Reggio C, Paudel A, Specht CS, Donato AA. Necrotising myopathy and concurrent thyroiditis in a patient with COVID-19 infection. BMJ Case Rep. 2021.

Singh B, Kaur P, Mechineni A, Maroules M. Rhabdomyolysis in COVID-19: report of four cases. Cureus. 2020.

Taxbro K, Kahlow H, Wulcan H, Fornarve A. Rhabdomyolysis and acute kidney injury in severe COVID-19 infection. BMJ Case Rep. 2020.

Karaarslan F, Güneri FD, Kardeş S. Long COVID: rheumatologic/musculoskeletal symptoms in hospitalized COVID-19 survivors at 3 and 6 months. Clin Rheum. 2022.

Huang C, Huang L, Wang Y, Li X, Ren L, Gu X, et al. 6-month consequences of COVID-19 in patients discharged from hospital: a cohort study. The Lancet. 2021.

Nasserie T, Hittle M, Goodman SN. Assessment of the frequency and variety of persistent symptoms among patients with COVID-19: a systematic review. JAMA Network Open. 2021.

Paneroni M, Simonelli C, Saleri M, Bertacchini L, Venturelli M, Troosters T, et al. Muscle strength and physical performance in patients without previous disabilities recovering from COVID-19 pneumonia. Am J Phys Med Rehab. 2021.

Belli S, Balbi B, Prince I, Cattaneo D, Masocco F, Zaccaria S, et al. Low physical functioning and impaired performance of activities of daily life in COVID-19 patients who survived hospitalisation. Eur Respir J. 2020.

Lokineni S, Mortezavi M. Delayed-onset necrotizing myositis following COVID-19 infection. Eur J Case Rep Intern Med. 2021;8(4): 002461. https://doi.org/10.12890/2021_002461.

Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

Piotrowicz K, Gąsowski J, Michel JP, Veronese N. Post-COVID-19 acute sarcopenia: physiopathology and management. Aging Clin Exp Res. 2021.

Echeverría-Rodríguez O, Del Valle-Mondragón L, Hong E. Angiotensin 1–7 improves insulin sensitivity by increasing skeletal muscle glucose uptake in vivo. Peptides. 2014.

Fernandes T, Hashimoto NY, Oliveira EM. Characterization of angiotensin-converting enzymes 1 and 2 in the soleus and plantaris muscles of rats. Braz J Med Biol Res. 2010.

Harmer D, Gilbert M, Borman R, Clark KL. Quantitative mRNA expression profiling of ACE 2, a novel homologue of angiotensin converting enzyme. FEBS Letters. 2002.

Riquelme C, Acuña MJ, Torrejón J, Rebolledo D, Cabrera D, Santos RA, et al. ACE2 is augmented in dystrophic skeletal muscle and plays a role in decreasing associated fibrosis. PLoS ONE. 2014.

Tipnis SR, Hooper NM, Hyde R, Karran E, Christie G, Turner AJ. A human homolog of angiotensin-converting enzyme: cloning and functional expression as a captopril-insensitive carboxypeptidase. J Biol Chem. 2000.

Aschman T, Schneider J, Greuel S, Meinhardt J, Streit S, Goebel HH, et al. Association between SARS-CoV-2 infection and immune-mediated myopathy in patients who have died. JAMA Neurology. 2021.

Suh J, Mukerji SS, Collens SI, Padera RF, Pinkus GS, Amato AA, et al. Skeletal muscle and peripheral nerve histopathology in COVID-19. Neurology. 2021.

Franch HA, Price SR. Molecular signaling pathways regulating muscle proteolysis during atrophy. Curr Opin Clin Nutr Metab Care. 2005.

Sartori R, Romanello V, Sandri M. Mechanisms of muscle atrophy and hypertrophy: implications in health and disease. Nat Commun. 2021.

Zhou J, Liu B, Liang C, Li Y, Song YH. Cytokine signaling in skeletal muscle wasting. Trends Endocrinol Metab. 2016.

Manzano GS, Woods JK, Amato AA. Covid-19–associated myopathy caused by type I interferonopathy. New England J Med. 2020.

Yeoh YK, Zuo T, Lui GCY, Zhang F, Liu Q, Li AYL, et al. Gut microbiota composition reflects disease severity and dysfunctional immune responses in patients with COVID-19. Gut. 2021.

Zuo T, Zhang F, Lui GCY, Yeoh YK, Li AYL, Zhan H, et al. Alterations in gut microbiota of patients with COVID-19 during time of hospitalization. Gastroenterology. 2020.

Ehrenfeld M, Tincani A, Andreoli L, Cattalini M, Greenbaum A, Kanduc D, et al. Covid-19 and autoimmunity. Autoimmun Rev. 2020.

•• Jabczyk M, Nowak J, Hudzik B, Zubelewicz-Szkodzińska B. Microbiota and its impact on the immune system in COVID-19—a narrative review. Journal of Clinical Medicine. 2021. Due to its impact on the host immune system, the microbiota is of interest for the development of a therapeutic strategy against COVID-19. The severity of COVID-19 is associated with the modulation of microbiota.

De Giorgio MR, Di Noia S, Morciano C, Conte D. The impact of SARS-CoV-2 on skeletal muscles. Acta Myol. 2020;39(4):307–12. https://doi.org/10.36185/2532-1900-034.

CAS  Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

National Institutes of Health (NIH). Coronavirus Disease 2019 (COVID-19) Treatment Guidelines [Internet]. 2022. [cited 2022 Jan 21]. Available from: https://www.covid19treatmentguidelines.nih.gov/

Bodine SC, Furlow JD. Glucocorticoids and skeletal muscle. Adv Exp Med Biol. 2015.

Schakman O, Kalista S, Barbé C, Loumaye A, Thissen JP. Glucocorticoid-induced skeletal muscle atrophy. Int J Biochem Cell Biol. 2013.

Braun TP, Marks DL. The regulation of muscle mass by endogenous glucocorticoids. Front Physiol. 2015.

Glass DJ. Signalling pathways that mediate skeletal muscle hypertrophy and atrophy. Nat Cell Biol. 2003.

Sandri M. Autophagy in skeletal muscle. FEBS Letters. 2010.

Grumati P, Bonaldo P. Autophagy in skeletal muscle homeostasis and in muscular dystrophies. Cells. 2012.

Mammucari C, Milan G, Romanello V, Masiero E, Rudolf R, Del Piccolo P, et al. FoxO3 controls autophagy in skeletal muscle in vivo. Cell Metab. 2007.

Hay N. Interplay between FOXO, TOR, and Akt. Biochimica et Biophysica Acta - Mol Cell Res. 2011.

Gilson H, Schakman O, Combaret L, Lause P, Grobet L, Attaix D, et al. Myostatin gene deletion prevents glucocorticoid-induced muscle atrophy. Endocrinology. 2007.

Shimizu N, Yoshikawa N, Ito N, Maruyama T, Suzuki Y, Takeda SI, et al. Crosstalk between glucocorticoid receptor and nutritional sensor mTOR in skeletal muscle. Cell Metab. 2011.

Lützner N, Kalbacher H, Krones-Herzig A, Rösl F. FOXO3 is a glucocorticoid receptor target and regulates LKB1 and its own expression based on cellular AMP levels via a positive autoregulatory loop. PLoS ONE. 2012.

Waddell DS, Baehr LM, Van Den Brandt J, Johnsen SA, Reichardt HM, Furlow JD, et al. The glucocorticoid receptor and FOXO1 synergistically activate the skeletal muscle atrophy-associated MuRF1 gene. Ame J Physiol - Endocrinol Metab. 2008;

PrOLUMIANT® [Internet]. April 9, 2020. [cited 2022 Jan 21]. p. 46. Available from: http://pi.lilly.com/ca/olumiant-ca-pm.pdf

ACTEMRA® (tocilizumab) injection, for intravenous or subcutaneous use [Internet]. Revised: 08/2017. [cited 2022 Jan 21]. Available from: https://www.accessdata.fda.gov/drugsatfda_docs/label/2017/125276s114lbl.pdf

Abate SM, Chekole YA, Estifanos MB, Abate KH, Kabthymer RH. Prevalence and outcomes of malnutrition among hospitalized COVID-19 patients: a systematic review and meta-analysis. Clin Nutr ESPEN. 2021.

Riesgo H, Castro A, Del Amo S, San Ceferino MJ, Izaola O, Primo D, et al. Prevalence of risk of malnutrition and risk of sarcopenia in a reference hospital for COVID-19: relationship with mortality. Ann Nutr Metab. 2021;

Cuerda C, Sánchez López I, Gil Martínez C, Merino Viveros M, Velasco C, Cevallos Peñafiel V, et al. Impact of COVID-19 in nutritional and functional status of survivors admitted in intensive care units during the first outbreak. Preliminary results of the NUTRICOVID study. Clin Nutr [Internet]. 2021; Available from: https://linkinghub.elsevier.com/retrieve/pii/S0261561421005264

Wang W, Xu C, Ma X, Zhang X, Xie P. Intensive care unit-acquired weakness: a review of recent progress with a look toward the future. Front Med. 2020.

Welch C, Hassan-Smith ZK, Greig CA, Lord JM, Jackson TA. Acute sarcopenia secondary to hospitalisation – an emerging condition affecting older adults. Aging Dis. 2018.

Paddon-Jones D, Sheffield-Moore M, Cree MG, Hewlings SJ, Aarsland A, Wolfe RR, et al. Atrophy and impaired muscle protein synthesis during prolonged inactivity and stress. J Clin Endocrinol Metab. 2006.

Tankisi H, Ochala J. Myopathy in acute and long-term COVID-19. Clin Neurophysiol [Internet]. 2022;134:141–2. Available from: https://linkinghub.elsevier.com/retrieve/pii/S1388245721007987

Tankisi H, Tankisi A, Harbo T, Markvardsen LK, Andersen H, Pedersen TH. Critical illness myopathy as a consequence of Covid-19 infection. Clin Neurophysiol. 2020.

Agergaard J, Leth S, Pedersen TH, Harbo T, Blicher JU, Karlsson P, et al. Myopathic changes in patients with long-term fatigue after COVID-19. Clin Neurophysiol. 2021.

Rudroff T, Workman CD, Ponto LLB. 18 F-FDG-PET imaging for post-COVID-19 brain and skeletal muscle alterations. Viruses. 2021.

Topuz OV, Aksu A, Yilmaz B. Is there any change in the muscle uptake pattern of FDG during or after COVID 19 infection in oncological FDG PET CT patients? J Nucl Med [Internet]. 62 no. Available from: https://jnm.snmjournals.org/content/62/supplement_1/1389

Ong SWX, Fong SW, Young BE, Chan YH, Lee B, Amrun SN, et al. Persistent symptoms and association with inflammatory cytokine signatures in recovered coronavirus disease 2019 patients. Open Forum Infect Dis. 2021.

Singh R, Hemati H, Bajpai M, Yadav P, Maheshwari A, Kumar S, et al. Sustained expression of inflammatory monocytes and activated T cells in COVID-19 patients and recovered convalescent plasma donors. Immun Inflamm Dis. 2021.

Gracia-Ramos AE, Martin-Nares E, Hernández-Molina G. New onset of autoimmune diseases following COVID-19 diagnosis. Cells [Internet]. 2021;10:3592. Available from: https://www.mdpi.com/2073-4409/10/12/3592

Veyseh M, Koyoda S, Ayesha B. COVID-19 IgG-related autoimmune inflammatory necrotizing myositis. BMJ Case Rep. 2021.

Karami Fath M, Jahangiri A, Ganji M, Sefid F, Payandeh Z, Hashemi ZS, et al. SARS-CoV-2 Proteome harbors peptides which are able to trigger autoimmunity responses: implications for infection, vaccination, and population coverage. Front Immunol. 2021;

Shah S, Danda D, Kavadichanda C, Das S, Adarsh MB, Negi VS. Autoimmune and rheumatic musculoskeletal diseases as a consequence of SARS-CoV-2 infection and its treatment. Rheumatol Int. 2020.

Medrinal C, Prieur G, Bonnevie T, Gravier FE, Mayard D, Desmalles E, et al. Muscle weakness, functional capacities and recovery for COVID-19 ICU survivors. BMC Anesthesiology. 2021.

Bagnato S, Ferraro M, Boccagni C, Battaglia G, D’Agostino T, Prestandrea C, et al. COVID-19 Neuromuscular involvement in post-acute rehabilitation. Brain Sci [Internet]. 2021;11:1611. Available from: https://www.mdpi.com/2076-3425/11/12/1611

Gérard M, Mahmutovic M, Malgras A, Michot N, Scheyer N, Jaussaud R, et al. Long-term evolution of malnutrition and loss of muscle strength after covid-19: a major and neglected component of long covid-19. Nutrients. 2021.

Ramos A, Joaquin C, Ros M, Martin M, Cachero M, Sospedra M, et al. Impact of COVID-19 on nutritional status during the first wave of the pandemic. Clin Nutr. 2021.

Trimboli P, Castellana M, Bellido D, Casanueva FF. Confusion in the nomenclature of ketogenic diets blurs evidence. Rev Endocr Metab Disord. 2020.

Caprio M, Infante M, Moriconi E, Armani A, Fabbri A, Mantovani G, et al. Very-low-calorie ketogenic diet (VLCKD) in the management of metabolic diseases: systematic review and consensus statement from the Italian Society of Endocrinology (SIE). J Endocrinol Invest. 2019.

Goday A, Bellido D, Sajoux I, Crujeiras AB, Burguera B, García-Luna PP, et al. Short-term safety, tolerability and efficacy of a very low-calorie-ketogenic diet interventional weight loss program versus hypocaloric diet in patients with type 2 diabetes mellitus. Nutr Diabetes. 2016.

Romano L, Marchetti M, Gualtieri P, Renzo LD, Belcastro M, De Santis GL, et al. Effects of a personalized VLCKD on body composition and resting energy expenditure in the reversal of diabetes to prevent complications. Nutrients. 2019;

Saslow LR, Kim S, Daubenmier JJ, Moskowitz JT, Phinney SD, Goldman V, et al. A randomized pilot trial of a moderate carbohydrate diet compared to a very low carbohydrate diet in overweight or obese individuals with type 2 diabetes mellitus or prediabetes. PLoS ONE. 2014.

El Ghoch M, Calugi S, Grave RD. The effects of low-carbohydrate diets on psychosocial outcomes in obesity/overweight: a systematic review of randomized, controlled studies. Nutrients. 2016.

Petrakis D, Margină D, Tsarouhas K, Tekos F, Stan M, Nikitovic D, et al. Obesity – a risk factor for increased COVID‑19 prevalence, severity and lethality (Review). Mol Med Rep. 2020.

Moriconi E, Camajani E, Fabbri A, Lenzi A, Caprio M. Very-low-calorie ketogenic diet as a safe and valuable tool for long-term glycemic management in patients with obesity and type 2 diabetes. Nutrients. 2020.

Gangitano E, Tozzi R, Gandini O, Watanabe M, Basciani S, Mariani S, et al. Ketogenic diet as a preventive and supportive care for covid-19 patients. Nutrients. 2021.

Gangitano E, Tozzi R, Mariani S, Lenzi A, Gnessi L, Lubrano C. Ketogenic diet for obese COVID-19 patients: is respiratory disease a contraindication? A narrative review of the literature on ketogenic diet and respiratory function. Front Nutr [Internet]. 2021;8. Available from: https://www.frontiersin.org/articles/10.3389/fnut.2021.771047/full

Sukkar SG, Bassetti M. Induction of ketosis as a potential therapeutic option to limit hyperglycemia and prevent cytokine storm in COVID-19. Nutrition. 2020.

Qian Z, Travanty EA, Oko L, Edeen K, Berglund A, Wang J, et al. Innate immune response of human alveolar type II cells infected with severe acute respiratory syndrome-coronavirus. Am J Respir Cell Mol Biol. 2013.

Paoli A, Gorini S, Caprio M. The dark side of the spoon – glucose, ketones and COVID-19: a possible role for ketogenic diet? J Transl Med. 2020.

Sukkar SG, Cogorno L, Pisciotta L, Pasta A, Vena A, Gradaschi R, et al. Clinical efficacy of eucaloric ketogenic nutrition in the COVID-19 cytokine storm: a retrospective analysis of mortality and intensive care unit admission. Nutrition. 2021.

Callard F, Perego E. How and why patients made Long Covid. Soc Sci Med. 2021.

Carfì A, Bernabei R, Landi F. Persistent symptoms in patients after acute COVID-19. JAMA - J Am Med Assoc. 2020.

Moreno-Pérez O, Merino E, Leon-Ramirez JM, Andres M, Ramos JM, Arenas-Jiménez J, et al. Post-acute COVID-19 syndrome. Incidence and risk factors: a Mediterranean cohort study. J Infect. 2021.

Sammarco R, Marra M, Di Guglielmo ML, Naccarato M, Contaldo F, Poggiogalle E, et al. Evaluation of hypocaloric diet with protein supplementation in middle-aged sarcopenic obese women: a pilot study. Obes Facts. 2017.

Wing JS, Sanderson LM, Brender JD, Perrotta DM, Beauchamp RA. Acute health effects in a community after a release of hydrofluoric acid. Arch Environ Health. 1991.

Cruz-Jentoft AJ, Bahat G, Bauer J, Boirie Y, Bruyère O, Cederholm T, et al. Sarcopenia: revised European consensus on definition and diagnosis. Age Ageing. 2019.

Beyer I, Mets T, Bautmans I. Chronic low-grade inflammation and age-related sarcopenia. Current Opinion in Clinical Nutrition and Metabolic Care. 2012.

Ferrucci L, Fabbri E. Inflammageing: chronic inflammation in ageing, cardiovascular disease, and frailty. Nat Rev Cardiol. 2018.

Cevenini E, Monti D, Franceschi C. Inflamm-ageing. Curr Opin Clin Nutr Metab Care. 2013.

Li CW, Yu K, Shyh-Chang N, Li GX, Jiang LJ, Yu SL, et al. Circulating factors associated with sarcopenia during ageing and after intensive lifestyle intervention. J Cachexia Sarcopenia Muscle. 2019.

Bano G, Trevisan C, Carraro S, Solmi M, Luchini C, Stubbs B, et al. Inflammation and sarcopenia: a systematic review and meta-analysis. Maturitas. 2017.

Nelke C, Dziewas R, Minnerup J, Meuth SG, Ruck T. Skeletal muscle as potential central link between sarcopenia and immune senescence. EBioMedicine. 2019.

Ragab D, Salah Eldin H, Taeimah M, Khattab R, Salem R. The COVID-19 cytokine storm; what we know so far. Front Immunol. 2020.

Kim JS, Lee JY, Yang JW, Lee KH, Effenberger M, Szpirt W, et al. Immunopathogenesis and treatment of cytokine storm in COVID-19. Theranostics. 2020.

Schiaffino S, Albano D, Cozzi A, Messina C, Arioli R, Bnà C, et al. CT-derived chest muscle metrics for outcome prediction in patients with COVID-19. Radiology. 2021.

Benlloch M, López-Rodríguez MM, Cuerda-Ballester M, Drehmer E, Carrera S, Ceron JJ, et al. Satiating effect of a ketogenic diet and its impact on muscle improvement and oxidation state in multiple sclerosis patients. Nutrients. 2019;

Merra G, Miranda R, Barrucco S, Gualtieri P, Mazza M, Moriconi E, et al. Very-low-calorie ketogenic diet with aminoacid supplement versus very low restricted-calorie diet for preserving muscle mass during weight loss: a pilot double-blind study. Eur Rev Med Pharmacol Sci. 2016.

Thomsen HH, Rittig N, Johannsen M, Møller AB, Jørgensen JO, Jessen N, et al. Effects of 3-hydroxybutyrate and free fatty acids on muscle protein kinetics and signaling during LPS-induced inflammation in humans: anticatabolic impact of ketone bodies. Am J Clin Nutr. 2018.

Hussain I, Cher GLY, Abid MA, Abid MB. Role of gut microbiome in COVID-19: an insight into pathogenesis and therapeutic potential. Front Immunol. 2021.

Daryabor G, Atashzar MR, Kabelitz D, Meri S, Kalantar K. The effects of type 2 diabetes mellitus on organ metabolism and the immune system. Front Immunol. 2020.

Verhoog S, Taneri PE, Díaz ZMR, Marques-Vidal P, Troup JP, Bally L, et al. Dietary factors and modulation of bacteria strains of Akkermansia muciniphila and Faecalibacterium prausnitzii: a systematic review. Nutrients. 2019.

Paoli A, Mancin L, Bianco A, Thomas E, Mota JF, Piccini F. Ketogenic diet and microbiota: friends or enemies? Genes. 2019.

Rondanelli M, Gasparri C, Peroni G, Faliva MA, Naso M, Perna S, et al. The potential roles of very low calorie, very low calorie ketogenic diets and very low carbohydrate diets on the gut microbiota composition. Front Endocrinol. 2021;12:662591.

Keys A, Menotti A, Aravanis C, Blackburn H, Djordevič BS, Buzina R, et al. The seven countries study: 2,289 deaths in 15 years. Prevent Med. 1984.

Estruch R, Camafort M. The Mediterranean diet and plasma lipid profile. Rev Esp Cardiol. 2015.

Blackburn H. Invited commentary: 30-year perspective on the seven countries study. Am J Epidemiol. 2017.

Mazzocchi A, Leone L, Agostoni C, Pali-Schöll I. The secrets of the mediterranean diet. Does [only] olive oil matter? Nutrients. 2019.

Buckland G, González CA, Agudo A, Vilardell M, Berenguer A, Amiano P, et al. Adherence to the Mediterranean diet and risk of coronary heart disease in the Spanish EPIC cohort study. Am J Epidemiol. 2009.

Vargas G, Azarbal J, Tota-Maharaj R. A comparative review of established diets for prevention of cardiovascular disease and newer dietary strategies. Curr Probl Cardiol. 2021.

Soldati L, Di Renzo L, Jirillo E, Ascierto PA, Marincola FM, De Lorenzo A. The influence of diet on anti-cancer immune responsiveness. J Transl Med. 2018.

Tosti V, Bertozzi B, Fontana L. Health benefits of the Mediterranean diet: metabolic and molecular mechanisms. J Gerontol - Series A Biol Sci Med Sci. 2018.

Barrea L, Muscogiuri G, Frias-Toral E, Laudisio D, Pugliese G, Castellucci B, et al. Nutrition and immune system: from the Mediterranean diet to dietary supplementary through the microbiota. Crit Rev Food Sci Nutr. 2020.

Lăcătușu CM, Grigorescu ED, Floria M, Onofriescu A, Mihai BM. The Mediterranean diet: from an environment-driven food culture to an emerging medical prescription. Int J Environ Res Publ Health. 2019.

De Santis S, Liso M, Verna G, Curci F, Milani G, Faienza MF, et al. Extra virgin olive oil extracts modulate the inflammatory ability of murine dendritic cells based on their polyphenols pattern: correlation between chemical composition and biological function. Antioxidants. 2021.

Cronin P, Joyce SA, O’toole PW, O’connor EM. Dietary fibre modulates the gut microbiota. Nutrients. 2021.

Barrea L, Muscogiuri G, Annunziata G, Laudisio D, Pugliese G, Salzano C, et al. From gut microbiota dysfunction to obesity: could short-chain fatty acids stop this dangerous course? Hormones. 2019;18.

Tan J, McKenzie C, Potamitis M, Thorburn AN, Mackay CR, Macia L. The role of short-chain fatty acids in health and disease. Adv Immunol. 2014.

Thorburn AN, Macia L, Mackay CR. Diet, metabolites, and “western-lifestyle” inflammatory diseases. Immunity. 2014.

Ni YF, Wang J, Yan XL, Tian F, Zhao JB, Wang YJ, et al. Histone deacetylase inhibitor, butyrate, attenuates lipopolysaccharide-induced acute lung injury in mice. Respir Res. 2010.

Säemann MD, Böhmig GA, Österreicher CH, Burtscher H, Parolini O, Diakos C, et al. Anti‐inflammatory effects of sodium butyrate on human monocytes: potent inhibition of IL‐12 and up‐regulation of IL‐10 production. The FASEB Journal. 2000.

Casas R, Sacanella E, Estruch R. The immune protective effect of the Mediterranean diet against chronic low-grade inflammatory diseases. Endocr Metab Immune Disord-Drug Targets. 2014;

DiNicolantonio JJ, O’Keefe J. The importance of maintaining a low omega-6/omega-3 ratio for reducing the risk of inflammatory cytokine storms. Mo Med. 2020.

Calder PC. Omega-3 polyunsaturated fatty acids and inflammatory processes: nutrition or pharmacology? Br J Clin Pharmacol. 2013.

Galli C, Calder PC. Effects of fat and fatty acid intake on inflammatory and immune responses: a critical review. Ann Nutr Metab. 2009.

Kim W, Khan NA, McMurray DN, Prior IA, Wang N, Chapkin RS. Regulatory activity of polyunsaturated fatty acids in T-cell signaling. Prog Lipid Res. 2010.

Wu D, Lewis ED, Pae M, Meydani SN. Nutritional modulation of immune function: analysis of evidence, mechanisms, and clinical relevance. Front Immunol. 2019.

Gurzell EA, Teague H, Harris M, Clinthorne J, Shaikh SR, Fenton JI. DHA-enriched fish oil targets B cell lipid microdomains and enhances ex vivo and in vivo B cell function. J Leukocyte Biol. 2013.

Yahfoufi N, Alsadi N, Jambi M, Matar C. The immunomodulatory and anti-inflammatory role of polyphenols. Nutrients. 2018.

González R, Ballester I, López-Posadas R, Suárez MD, Zarzuelo A, Martínez-Augustin O, et al. Effects of flavonoids and other polyphenols on inflammation. Crit Rev Food Sci Nutr. 2011.

•• Shanbehzadeh S, Tavahomi M, Zanjari N, Ebrahimi-Takamjani I, Amiri-arimi S. Physical and mental health complications post-COVID-19: scoping review. J Psychosom Res. 2021. (Several physical and mental health problems have been reported up to 3 months post-COVID-19. A comprehensive assessment and post-COVID-19 rehabilitation is needed to promote quality of life.)

Palaiodimos L, Kokkinidis DG, Li W, Karamanis D, Ognibene J, Arora S, et al. Severe obesity, increasing age and male sex are independently associated with worse in-hospital outcomes, and higher in-hospital mortality, in a cohort of patients with COVID-19 in the Bronx, New York. Metabolism. 2020.

Kara M, Ata AM, Özçakar L. Sarcopenic obesity is the real problem in COVID-19 ! Eur J Intern Med. 2021.

Khazem S, Itani L, Kreidieh D, El Masri D, Tannir H, Citarella R, et al. Reduced lean body mass and cardiometabolic diseases in adult males with overweight and obesity: a pilot study. Int J Environ Res Publ Health. 2018;

Angelidi AM, Kokkinos A, Katechaki E, Ros E, Mantzoros CS. Mediterranean diet as a nutritional approach for COVID-19. Metabolism: Clin Exp. 2021.

El Ghoch M, Valerio A. Let food be the medicine, but not for coronavirus: nutrition and food science, telling myths from facts. J Popul Ther Clin Pharmacol. 2020.

Di Renzo L, Gualtieri P, Pivari F, Soldati L, Attinà A, Cinelli G, et al. Eating habits and lifestyle changes during COVID-19 lockdown: an Italian survey. J Transl Med [Internet]. 2020;18. Available from: https://www.scopus.com/inward/record.uri?eid=2-s2.0-85086297209&doi=10.1186%2Fs12967-020-02399-5&partnerID=40&md5=04cd8d902535d75395c85a604cc728ff

Valerio A, Nisoli E, Rossi AP, Pellegrini M, Todesco T, El Ghoch M. Obesity and higher risk for severe complications of COVID-19: what to do when the two pandemics meet. J Popul Ther Clin Pharmacol. 2020.

Barazzoni R, Bischoff SC, Busetto L, Cederholm T, Chourdakis M, Cuerda C, et al. Nutritional management of individuals with obesity and COVID-19: ESPEN expert statements and practical guidance. Clin Nutr. 2021.

Greene MW, Roberts AP, Frugé AD. Negative association between Mediterranean diet adherence and COVID-19 cases and related deaths in Spain and 23 OECD countries: an ecological study. Front Nutr. 2021.

Wheless JW. History of the ketogenic diet. Epilepsia. 2008.

Paoli A, Rubini A, Volek JS, Grimaldi KA. Beyond weight loss: a review of the therapeutic uses of very-low-carbohydrate (ketogenic) diets. Eur J Clin Nutr. 2013.

Gomez-Arbelaez D, Crujeiras AB, Castro AI, Martinez-Olmos MA, Canton A, Ordoñez-Mayan L, et al. Resting metabolic rate of obese patients under very low calorie ketogenic diet. Nutr Metab. 2018.

Muscogiuri G, El Ghoch M, Colao A, Hassapidou M, Yumuk V, Busetto L. European guidelines for obesity management in adults with a very low-calorie ketogenic diet: a systematic review and meta-analysis. Obes Facts. 2021.

Basciani S, Camajani E, Contini S, Persichetti A, Risi R, Bertoldi L, et al. Very-low-calorie ketogenic diets with whey, vegetable, or animal protein in patients with obesity: a randomized pilot study. J Clin Endocrinol Metab. 2020.

Tragni E, Vigna L, Ruscica M, Macchi C, Casula M, Santelia A, et al. Reduction of cardio-metabolic risk and body weight through a multiphasic very-low calorie ketogenic diet program in women with overweight/obesity: a study in a real-world setting. Nutrients. 2021.

Barrea L, Verde L, Vetrani C, Marino F, Aprano S, Savastano S, et al. VLCKD: a real time safety study in obesity. J Transl Med [Internet]