Stirling A, Worthington T, Rafiq M, Lambert PA, Elliott TS (2001) Association between sciatica and Propionibacterium acnes. Lancet (London, England) 357(9273):2024–2025. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0140-6736(00)05109-6

CAS  Article  Google Scholar 

Albert HB, Sorensen JS, Christensen BS, Manniche C (2013) Antibiotic treatment in patients with chronic low back pain and vertebral bone edema (Modic type 1 changes): a double-blind randomized clinical controlled trial of efficacy. Eur Spine J 22(4):697–707. https://doi.org/10.1007/s00586-013-2675-y

Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

Fritzell P, Bergström T, Jönsson B, Andersson S, Skorpil M, Muhareb Udby P, Andersen M, Hägg O (2020) Antibiotics should not be used to treat patients with back/leg pain. Lakartidningen 117

Marshall LL, Trethewie ER, Curtain CC (1977) Chemical radiculitis. A clinical, physiological and immunological study. Clin Orthop Relat Res 129:61–67

Article  Google Scholar 

Aghazadeh J, Salehpour F, Ziaeii E, Javanshir N, Samadi A, Sadeghi J, Mirzaei F, Naseri Alavi SA (2017) Modic changes in the adjacent vertebrae due to disc material infection with Propionibacterium acnes in patients with lumbar disc herniation. Eur Spine J 26(12):3129–3134. https://doi.org/10.1007/s00586-016-4887-4

Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

Capoor MN, Ruzicka F, Machackova T, Jancalek R, Smrcka M, Schmitz JE, Hermanova M, Sana J, Michu E, Baird JC, Ahmed FS, Maca K, Lipina R, Alamin TF, Coscia MF, Stonemetz JL, Witham T, Ehrlich GD, Gokaslan ZL, Mavrommatis K, Birkenmaier C, Fischetti VA, Slaby O (2016) Prevalence of Propionibacterium acnes in intervertebral discs of patients undergoing lumbar microdiscectomy: a prospective cross-sectional study. PLoS ONE 11(8):e0161676. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0161676

CAS  Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

Capoor MN, Ruzicka F, Schmitz JE, James GA, Machackova T, Jancalek R, Smrcka M, Lipina R, Ahmed FS, Alamin TF, Anand N, Baird JC, Bhatia N, Demir-Deviren S, Eastlack RK, Fisher S, Garfin SR, Gogia JS, Gokaslan ZL, Kuo CC, Lee Y-P, Mavrommatis K, Michu E, Noskova H, Raz A, Sana J, Shamie AN, Stewart PS, Stonemetz JL, Wang JC, Witham TF, Coscia MF, Birkenmaier C, Fischetti VA, Slaby O (2017) Propionibacterium acnes biofilm is present in intervertebral discs of patients undergoing microdiscectomy. PLoS ONE 12(4):e0174518. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0174518

CAS  Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

Perry A, Lambert P (2011) Propionibacterium acnes: infection beyond the skin. Expert Rev Anti Infect Ther 9(12):1149–1156. https://doi.org/10.1586/eri.11.137

CAS  Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

Becker K, Heilmann C, Peters G (2014) Coagulase-negative staphylococci. Clin Microbiol Rev 27(4):870–926. https://doi.org/10.1128/cmr.00109-13

Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

Alpantaki K, Katonis P, Hadjipavlou AG, Spandidos DA, Sourvinos G (2011) Herpes virus infection can cause intervertebral disc degeneration: a causal relationship? J Bone Joint Surg Br 93(9):1253–1258. https://doi.org/10.1302/0301-620X.93B9.27002

CAS  Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

Coscia MF, Denys GA, Wack MF (2016) Propionibacterium acnes, coagulase-negative staphylococcus, and the “biofilm-like” intervertebral disc. Spine 41(24):1860–1865. https://doi.org/10.1097/BRS.0000000000001909

Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

Rigal J, Thelen T, Byrne F, Cogniet A, Boissière L, Aunoble S, Le Huec J-C (2016) Prospective study using anterior approach did not show association between Modic 1 changes and low grade infection in lumbar spine. Eur Spine J 25(4):1000–1005. https://doi.org/10.1007/s00586-016-4396-5

Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

Shan Z, Zhang X, Li S, Yu T, Mamuti M, Zhao F (2017) The Influence of direct inoculation of Propionibacterium acnes on modic changes in the spine: evidence from a rabbit model. J Bone Joint Surg Am 99(6):472–481. https://doi.org/10.2106/jbjs.16.00146

Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

Lin Y, Jiao Y, Yuan Y, Zhou Z, Zheng Y, Xiao J, Li C, Chen Z, Cao P (2018) Propionibacterium acnes induces intervertebral disc degeneration by promoting nucleus pulposus cell apoptosis via the TLR2/JNK/mitochondrial-mediated pathway. Emerg Microbes Infect 7(1):1. https://doi.org/10.1038/s41426-017-0002-0

CAS  Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

McDowell A, Valanne S, Ramage G, Tunney MM, Glenn JV, McLorinan GC, Bhatia A, Maisonneuve JF, Lodes M, Persing DH, Patrick S (2005) Propionibacterium acnes types I and II represent phylogenetically distinct groups. J Clin Microbiol 43(1):326–334. https://doi.org/10.1128/jcm.43.1.326-334.2005

CAS  Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

Modic MT, Masaryk TJ, Ross JS, Carter JR (1988) Imaging of degenerative disk disease. Radiology 168(1):177–186. https://doi.org/10.1148/radiology.168.1.3289089

CAS  Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

Modic MT, Steinberg PM, Ross JS, Masaryk TJ, Carter JR (1988) Degenerative disk disease: assessment of changes in vertebral body marrow with MR imaging. Radiology 166(1 Pt 1):193–199. https://doi.org/10.1148/radiology.166.1.3336678

CAS  Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

Mok FP, Samartzis D, Karppinen J, Fong DY, Luk KD, Cheung KM (2016) Modic changes of the lumbar spine: prevalence, risk factors, and association with disc degeneration and low back pain in a large-scale population-based cohort. Spine J 16(1):32–41. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.spinee.2015.09.060

Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

Mera Y, Teraguchi M, Hashizume H, Oka H, Muraki S, Akune T, Kawaguchi H, Nakamura K, Tamai H, Tanaka S, Yoshida M, Yoshimura N, Yamada H (2020) Association between types of Modic changes in the lumbar region and low back pain in a large cohort: the Wakayama spine study. Eur Spine J. https://doi.org/10.1007/s00586-020-06618-x

Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

Iyer S, Louie PK, Nolte MT, Phillips FM (2019) The relationship between low-grade infection and degenerative disk disease: a review of basic science and clinical data. J Am Acad Orthop Surg 27(14):509–518. https://doi.org/10.5435/JAAOS-D-18-00257

Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

Albert HB, Lambert P, Rollason J, Sorensen JS, Worthington T, Pedersen MB, Nørgaard HS, Vernallis A, Busch F, Manniche C, Elliott T (2013) Does nuclear tissue infected with bacteria following disc herniations lead to Modic changes in the adjacent vertebrae? Eur Spine J 22(4):690–696. https://doi.org/10.1007/s00586-013-2674-z

Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

Bråten LCH, Rolfsen MP, Espeland A, Wigemyr M, Aßmus J, Froholdt A, Haugen AJ, Marchand GH, Kristoffersen PM, Lutro O, Randen S, Wilhelmsen M, Winsvold BS, Kadar TI, Holmgard TE, Vigeland MD, Vetti N, Nygaard ØP, Lie BA, Hellum C, Anke A, Grotle M, Schistad EI, Skouen JS, Grøvle L, Brox JI, Zwart J-A, Storheim K, group As (2019) Efficacy of antibiotic treatment in patients with chronic low back pain and Modic changes (the AIM study): double blind, randomised, placebo controlled, multicentre trial. BMJ (Clinical research ed) 367:l5654. https://doi.org/10.1136/bmj.l5654

Article  Google Scholar 

Carricajo A, Nuti C, Aubert E, Hatem O, Fonsale N, Mallaval FO, Vautrin AC, Brunon J, Aubert G (2007) Propionibacterium acnes contamination in lumbar disc surgery. J Hosp Infect 66(3):275–277. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jhin.2007.04.007

CAS  Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

Rao PJ, Phan K, Reddy R, Scherman DB, Taylor P, Mobbs RJ (2016) DISC (degenerate-disc infection study with contaminant control): pilot study of Australian cohort of patients without the contaminant control. Spine 41(11):935–939. https://doi.org/10.1097/BRS.0000000000001404

Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

Arndt J, Charles YP, Koebel C, Bogorin I, Steib J-P (2012) Bacteriology of degenerated lumbar intervertebral disks. J Spinal Disord Tech 25(7):E211-216. https://doi.org/10.1097/BSD.0b013e318269851a

Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

Agarwal V, Golish SR, Alamin TF (2011) Bacteriologic culture of excised intervertebral disc from immunocompetent patients undergoing single level primary lumbar microdiscectomy. J Spinal Disord Tech 24(6):397–400. https://doi.org/10.1097/BSD.0b013e3182019f3a

Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

Achermann Y, Goldstein EJ, Coenye T, Shirtliff ME (2014) Propionibacterium acnes: from commensal to opportunistic biofilm-associated implant pathogen. Clin Microbiol Rev 27(3):419–440. https://doi.org/10.1128/CMR.00092-13

Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

Jahns AC, Lundskog B, Berg J, Jonsson R, McDowell A, Patrick S, Golovleva I, Palmer RH, Alexeyev OA (2014) Microbiology of folliculitis: a histological study of 39 cases. APMIS 122(1):25–32. https://doi.org/10.1111/apm.12103

Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

Alexeyev OA (2013) Bacterial landscape of human skin: seeing the forest for the trees. Exp Dermatol 22(7):443–446. https://doi.org/10.1111/exd.12160

CAS  Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

Jahns AC, Alexeyev OA (2014) Three dimensional distribution of Propionibacterium acnes biofilms in human skin. Exp Dermatol 23(9):687–689. https://doi.org/10.1111/exd.12482

Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

Lange-Asschenfeldt B, Marenbach D, Lang C, Patzelt A, Ulrich M, Maltusch A, Terhorst D, Stockfleth E, Sterry W, Lademann J (2011) Distribution of bacteria in the epidermal layers and hair follicles of the human skin. Skin Pharmacol Physiol 24(6):305–311. https://doi.org/10.1159/000328728

CAS  Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

Gilbert JA, Stephens B (2018) Microbiology of the built environment. Nat Rev Microbiol 16(11):661–670. https://doi.org/10.1038/s41579-018-0065-5

CAS  Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

Javanshir N, Salehpour F, Aghazadeh J, Mirzaei F, Naseri Alavi SA (2017) The distribution of infection with Propionibacterium acnes is equal in patients with cervical and lumbar disc herniation. Eur Spine J 26(12):3135–3140. https://doi.org/10.1007/s00586-017-5219-z

Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

Chen Y, Wang X, Zhang X, Ren H, Huang B, Chen J, Liu J, Shan Z, Zhu Z, Zhao F (2018) Low virulence bacterial infections in cervical intervertebral discs: a prospective case series. Eur Spine J 27(10):2496–2505. https://doi.org/10.1007/s00586-018-5582-4

Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

Grice EA, Kong HH, Conlan S, Deming CB, Davis J, Young AC, Program NCS, Bouffard GG, Blakesley RW, Murray PR, Green ED, Turner ML, Segre JA (2009) Topographical and temporal diversity of the human skin microbiome. Science 324(5931):1190–1192. https://doi.org/10.1126/science.1171700

CAS  Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

Patel A, Calfee RP, Plante M, Fischer SA, Green A (2009) Propionibacterium acnes colonization of the human shoulder. J Shoulder Elbow Surg 18(6):897–902. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jse.2009.01.023

Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

Alpantaki K, Zafiropoulos A, Tseliou M, Vasarmidi E, Sourvinos G (2019) Herpes simplex virus type-1 infection affects the expression of extracellular matrix components in human nucleus pulposus cells. Virus Res 259:10–17. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.virusres.2018.10.010

CAS