• Chooi YC, Ding C, Magkos F. The epidemiology of obesity. Metabolism. 2019;92:6–10. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.metabol.2018.09.005. A concise update on obesity rates around the world by geographical location, age group, and sex.

CAS  Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

Stefan N, Haring HU, Schulze MB. Metabolically healthy obesity: the low-hanging fruit in obesity treatment? Lancet Diabetes Endocrinol. 2018;6:249–58. https://doi.org/10.1016/S2213-8587(17)30292-9.

Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

Franz MJ, VanWormer JJ, Crain AL, Boucher JL, Histon T, Caplan W, et al. Weight-loss outcomes: a systematic review and meta-analysis of weight-loss clinical trials with a minimum 1-year follow-up. J Am Diet Assoc. 2007;107:1755–67. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jada.2007.07.017.

Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

Casazza K, Fontaine KR, Astrup A, Birch LL, Brown AW, Bohan Brown MM, et al. Myths, presumptions, and facts about obesity. N Engl J Med. 2013;368:446–54. https://doi.org/10.1056/NEJMsa1208051.

CAS  Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

UK National Health Service. Should you lose weight fast? 2019. https://www.nhs.uk/live-well/healthy-weight/should-you-lose-weight-fast/?tabname=you-and-your-weight.

Tsai AG, Wadden TA. The evolution of very-low-calorie diets: an update and meta-analysis. Obesity (Silver Spring). 2006;14:1283–93. https://doi.org/10.1038/oby.2006.146.

Article  Google Scholar 

Rattan S, Coxon A, Kreitzman S, Lemons A. Maintenance of weight loss with recovery of resting metabolic rate following 8 weeks of very low calorie dieting. Int J Obes. 1989;13(Suppl 2):189–92.

PubMed  Google Scholar 

Van Gaal LF, Vansant GA, De Leeuw IH. Factors determining energy expenditure during very-low-calorie diets. Am J Clin Nutr. 1992;56:224S-S229. https://doi.org/10.1093/ajcn/56.1.224S.

Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

Astrup A, Gotzsche PC, van de Werken K, Ranneries C, Toubro S, Raben A, et al. Meta-analysis of resting metabolic rate in formerly obese subjects. Am J Clin Nutr. 1999;69:1117–22. https://doi.org/10.1093/ajcn/69.6.1117.

CAS  Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

Bosy-Westphal A, Schautz B, Lagerpusch M, Pourhassan M, Braun W, Goele K, et al. Effect of weight loss and regain on adipose tissue distribution, composition of lean mass and resting energy expenditure in young overweight and obese adults. Int J Obes (Lond). 2013;37:1371–7. https://doi.org/10.1038/ijo.2013.1.

CAS  Article  Google Scholar 

Pasman WJ, Saris WH, Westerterp-Plantenga MS. Predictors of weight maintenance. Obes Res. 1999;7:43–50. https://doi.org/10.1002/j.1550-8528.1999.tb00389.x.

CAS  Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

Ravussin E, Lillioja S, Knowler WC, Christin L, Freymond D, Abbott WG, et al. Reduced rate of energy expenditure as a risk factor for body-weight gain. N Engl J Med. 1988;318:467–72. https://doi.org/10.1056/NEJM198802253180802.

CAS  Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

Vogels N, Diepvens K, Westerterp-Plantenga MS. Predictors of long-term weight maintenance. Obes Res. 2005;13:2162–8. https://doi.org/10.1038/oby.2005.268.

Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

Hemmingsson E, Johansson K, Eriksson J, Sundstrom J, Neovius M, Marcus C. Weight loss and dropout during a commercial weight-loss program including a very-low-calorie diet, a low-calorie diet, or restricted normal food: observational cohort study. Am J Clin Nutr. 2012;96:953–61. https://doi.org/10.3945/ajcn.112.038265.

CAS  Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

Unick JL, Neiberg RH, Hogan PE, Cheskin LJ, Dutton GR, Jeffery R, et al. Weight change in the first 2 months of a lifestyle intervention predicts weight changes 8 years later. Obesity (Silver Spring). 2015;23:1353–6. https://doi.org/10.1002/oby.21112.

Article  Google Scholar 

Ashtary-Larky D, Ghanavati M, Lamuchi-Deli N, Payami SA, Alavi-Rad S, Boustaninejad M, et al. Rapid weight loss vs. slow weight loss: Which is more effective on body composition and metabolic risk factors? Int J Endocrinol Metab. 2017;15:e13249. https://doi.org/10.5812/ijem.13249.

Ashtary-Larky D, Daneghian S, Alipour M, Rafiei H, Ghanavati M, Mohammadpour R, et al. Waist circumference to height ratio: Better correlation with fat mass than other anthropometric indices during dietary weight loss in different rates. Int J Endocrinol Metab. 2018;16: e55023. https://doi.org/10.5812/ijem.55023.

Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

Bradley D, Conte C, Mittendorfer B, Eagon JC, Varela JE, Fabbrini E, et al. Gastric bypass and banding equally improve insulin sensitivity and beta cell function. J Clin Invest. 2012;122:4667–74. https://doi.org/10.1172/JCI64895.

CAS  Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

Coutinho SR, With E, Rehfeld JF, Kulseng B, Truby H, Martins C. The impact of rate of weight loss on body composition and compensatory mechanisms during weight reduction: A randomized control trial. Clin Nutr. 2018;37:1154–62. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.clnu.2017.04.008.

Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

Garthe I, Raastad T, Refsnes PE, Koivisto A, Sundgot-Borgen J. Effect of two different weight-loss rates on body composition and strength and power-related performance in elite athletes. Int J Sport Nutr Exerc Metab. 2011;21:97–104. https://doi.org/10.1123/ijsnem.21.2.97.

CAS  Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

Hintze LJ, Goldfield G, Seguin R, Damphousse A, Riopel A, Doucet E. The rate of weight loss does not affect resting energy expenditure and appetite sensations differently in women living with overweight and obesity. Physiol Behav. 2019;199:314–21. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.physbeh.2018.11.032.

CAS  Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

Purcell K, Sumithran P, Prendergast LA, Bouniu CJ, Delbridge E, Proietto J. The effect of rate of weight loss on long-term weight management: a randomised controlled trial. Lancet Diabetes Endocrinol. 2014;2:954–62. https://doi.org/10.1016/S2213-8587(14)70200-1.

Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

Senechal M, Arguin H, Bouchard DR, Carpentier AC, Ardilouze JL, Dionne IJ, et al. Effects of rapid or slow weight loss on body composition and metabolic risk factors in obese postmenopausal women. A pilot study Appetite. 2012;58:831–4. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.appet.2012.01.014.

Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

• Shah A, Holter MM, Rimawi F, Mark V, Dutia R, McGinty J, et al. Insulin clearance after oral and intravenous glucose following gastric bypass and gastric banding weight loss. Diabetes Care. 2019;42:311–7. https://doi.org/10.2337/dc18-1036. An analysis of the metabolic effects of gastric bypass and adjustable gastric banding as a function of weight loss, with reference to insulin sensitivity, secretion, and clearance.

CAS  Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

Siervo M, Faber P, Lara J, Gibney ER, Milne E, Ritz P, et al. Imposed rate and extent of weight loss in obese men and adaptive changes in resting and total energy expenditure. Metabolism. 2015;64:896–904. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.metabol.2015.03.011.

CAS  Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

Vink RG, Roumans NJ, Arkenbosch LA, Mariman EC, van Baak MA. The effect of rate of weight loss on long-term weight regain in adults with overweight and obesity. Obesity (Silver Spring). 2016;24:321–7. https://doi.org/10.1002/oby.21346.

CAS  Article  Google Scholar 

Wing RR, Blair EH, Bononi P, Marcus MD, Watanabe R, Bergman RN. Caloric restriction per se is a significant factor in improvements in glycemic control and insulin sensitivity during weight loss in obese NIDDM patients. Diabetes Care. 1994;17:30–6. https://doi.org/10.2337/diacare.17.1.30.

CAS  Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

•• Yoshino M, Kayser BD, Yoshino J, Stein RI, Reeds D, Eagon JC, et al. Effects of diet versus gastric bypass on metabolic function in diabetes. N Engl J Med. 2020;383:721–32. https://doi.org/10.1056/NEJMoa2003697. A state-of-the-art study in patients with obesity and type 2 diabetes that compared the metabolic effects of gastric bypass surgery and dietary energy restriction for the same amount of weight loss. Results demonstrate that although surgery may have weight-independent effects on some cardiometabolic biomarkers, the improvements in hard endpoints (body composition and fat distribution, insulin sensitivity and secretion, diurnal glucose control) are entirely dependent on the amount of weight loss.

CAS  Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

• Seimon RV, Wild-Taylor AL, Keating SE, McClintock S, Harper C, Gibson AA, et al. Effect of weight loss via severe vs moderate energy restriction on lean mass and body composition among postmenopausal women with obesity: The TEMPO diet randomized clinical trial. JAMA Netw Open. 2019;2: e1913733. https://doi.org/10.1001/jamanetworkopen.2019.13733. A randomized controlled trial showing that, for a given treatment duration (not matched for total weight loss), severe energy restriction causes greater reductions in body weight (both fat and lean mass) but also greater reductions in bone mineral density compared with moderate energy restriction.

Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

Verheggen RJ, Maessen MF, Green DJ, Hermus AR, Hopman MT, Thijssen DH. A systematic review and meta-analysis on the effects of exercise training versus hypocaloric diet: distinct effects on body weight and visceral adipose tissue. Obes Rev. 2016;17:664–90. https://doi.org/10.1111/obr.12406.

CAS  Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

Chaston TB, Dixon JB. Factors associated with percent change in visceral versus subcutaneous abdominal fat during weight loss: Findings from a systematic review. Int J Obes (Lond). 2008;32:619–28. https://doi.org/10.1038/sj.ijo.0803761.

CAS  Article  Google Scholar 

Arciero PJ, Goran MI, Poehlman ET. Resting metabolic rate is lower in women than in men. J Appl Physiol. 1985;1993(75):2514–20. https://doi.org/10.1152/jappl.1993.75.6.2514.

Article  Google Scholar 

Bogardus C, Lillioja S, Ravussin E, Abbott W, Zawadzki JK, Young A, et al. Familial dependence of the resting metabolic rate. N Engl J Med. 1986;315:96–100. https://doi.org/10.1056/NEJM198607103150205.

CAS  Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

Bosy-Westphal A, Kossel E, Goele K, Later W, Hitze B, Settler U, et al. Contribution of individual organ mass loss to weight loss-associated decline in resting energy expenditure. Am J Clin Nutr. 2009;90:993–1001. https://doi.org/10.3945/ajcn.2008.27402.

CAS  Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

Heshka S, Yang MU, Wang J, Burt P, Pi-Sunyer FX. Weight loss and change in resting metabolic rate. Am J Clin Nutr. 1990;52:981–6. https://doi.org/10.1093/ajcn/52.6.981.

CAS  Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

Leibel RL, Rosenbaum M, Hirsch J. Changes in energy expenditure resulting from altered body weight. N Engl J Med. 1995;332:621–8. https://doi.org/10.1056/NEJM199503093321001.

CAS  Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

•• Martins C, Roekenes J, Salamati S, Gower BA, Hunter GR. Metabolic adaptation is an illusion, only present when participants are in negative energy balance. Am J Clin Nutr. 2020;112:1212–8. https://doi.org/10.1093/ajcn/nqaa220. A very interesting study in men and women with overweight or obesity demonstrating that measured resting metabolic rate immediately after a period of dynamic weight loss is significantly underestimated; in fact, it increases considerably after a few weeks of stabilization at the new, lower body weight. As a result, the magnitude of the so-called ‘adaptive thermogenesis’ (difference between measured and predicted resting metabolic rate) is much smaller than what previously believed.

Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

• Ashtary-Larky D, Bagheri R, Abbasnezhad A, Tinsley GM, Alipour M, Wong A. Effects of gradual weight loss v. rapid weight loss on body composition and RMR: a systematic review and meta-analysis. Br J Nutr. 2020;124:1121–32. https://doi.org/10.1017/S000711452000224X. A meta-analysis of data from seven studies that compared the effects of rapid versus gradual rates of weight loss on body composition and metabolic rate.