Diagnosis and Management of Suspected Pediatric Autoimmune Encephalitis: A Comprehensive, Multidisciplinary Approach and Review of Literature

1. Gable, MS, Sheriff, H, Dalmau, J, Tilley, DH, Glaser, CA. The frequency of autoimmune N-methyl-d-aspartate receptor encephalitis surpasses that of individual viral etiologies in young individuals enrolled in the California Encephalitis Project. Clin Infect Dis. 2012;54(7):899-904. doi:10.1093/cid/cir1038
Google Scholar | Crossref | Medline | ISI2. Melzer, N, Meuth, SG, Wiendl, H. Paraneoplastic and non-paraneoplastic autoimmunity to neurons in the central nervous system. J Neurol. 2013;260(5):1215-1233. doi:10.1007/s00415-012-6657-5
Google Scholar | Crossref | Medline3. Esposito, S, Principi, N, Calabresi, P, Rigante, D. An evolving redefinition of autoimmune encephalitis. Autoimmun Rev. 2019;18(2):155-163. doi:10.1016/j.autrev.2018.08.009
Google Scholar | Crossref | Medline4. Lancaster, E, Martinez-Hernandez, E, Dalmau, J. Encephalitis and antibodies to synaptic and neuronal cell surface proteins. Neurology. 2011;77(2):179-189. doi:10.1212/WNL.0b013e318224afde
Google Scholar | Crossref | Medline | ISI5. Shim, Y, Kim, SY, Kim, H, et al. Clinical outcomes of pediatric anti-NMDA receptor encephalitis. Eur J Paediatr Neurol. 2020;29:87-91. doi:10.1016/j.ejpn.2020.10.001
Google Scholar | Crossref | Medline6. Titulaer, MJ, McCracken, L, Gabilondo, I, et al. Treatment and prognostic factors for long-term outcome in patients with anti-NMDA receptor encephalitis: an observational cohort study. Lancet Neurol. 2013;12(2):157-165. doi:10.1016/S1474-4422(12)70310-1
Google Scholar | Crossref | Medline | ISI7. Balu, R, McCracken, L, Lancaster, E, Graus, F, Dalmau, J, Titulaer, MJ. A score that predicts 1-year functional status in patients with anti-NMDA receptor encephalitis. Neurology. 2019;92(3):e244-e252. doi:10.1212/WNL.0000000000006783
Google Scholar | Crossref | Medline8. McGetrick, ME, Varughese, NA, Miles, DK, et al. Clinical features, treatment strategies, and outcomes in hospitalized children with immune-mediated encephalopathies. Pediatr Neurol. 2021;116:20-26. doi:10.1016/j.pediatrneurol.2020.11.014
Google Scholar | Crossref | Medline9. Van Mater, H . Pediatric inflammatory brain diseases: a diagnostic approach. Curr Opin Rheumatol. 2014;26(5):553-561. doi:10.1097/BOR.0000000000000092
Google Scholar | Crossref | Medline10. de Bruijn, MAAM, Bruijstens, AL, Bastiaansen, AEM, et al. Pediatric autoimmune encephalitis: recognition and diagnosis. Neurol Neuroimmunol Neuroinflamm. 2020;7(3):e682. doi:10.1212/NXI.0000000000000682
Google Scholar | Crossref | Medline11. Dale, RC, Gorman, MP, Lim, M. Autoimmune encephalitis in children: clinical phenomenology, therapeutics, and emerging challenges. Curr Opin Neurol. 2017;30(3):334-344. doi:10.1097/WCO.0000000000000443
Google Scholar | Crossref | Medline12. Cellucci, T, Van Mater, H, Graus, F, et al. Clinical approach to the diagnosis of autoimmune encephalitis in the pediatric patient. Neurol Neuroimmunol Neuroinflamm. 2020;7(2):e663. doi:10.1212/NXI.0000000000000663
Google Scholar | Crossref | Medline13. Brenton, JN, Goodkin, HP. Antibody-mediated autoimmune encephalitis in childhood. Pediatr Neurol. 2016;60:13-23. doi:10.1016/j.pediatrneurol.2016.04.004
Google Scholar | Crossref | Medline14. Armangue, T, Olivé-Cirera, G, Martínez-Hernandez, E, et al. Associations of paediatric demyelinating and encephalitic syndromes with myelin oligodendrocyte glycoprotein antibodies: a multicentre observational study. Lancet Neurol. 2020;19(3):234-246. doi:10.1016/S1474-4422(19)30488-0
Google Scholar | Crossref | Medline15. Mooneyham, GC, Gallentine, W, Van Mater, H. Evaluation and management of autoimmune encephalitis. Child Adolesc Psychiatr Clin N Am. 2018;27(1):37-52. doi:10.1016/j.chc.2017.08.011
Google Scholar | Crossref | Medline16. Armangue, T, Titulaer, MJ, Málaga, I, et al. Pediatric anti-N-methyl-d-aspartate receptor encephalitis—clinical analysis and novel findings in a series of 20 patients. J Pediatr. 2013;162(4):850-856.e2. doi:10.1016/j.jpeds.2012.10.011
Google Scholar | Crossref | Medline | ISI17. Brenton, JN, Kim, J, Schwartz, RH. Approach to the management of pediatric-onset anti-N-methyl-d-aspartate (anti-NMDA) receptor encephalitis: a case series. J Child Neurol. 2016;31(9):1150-1155. doi:10.1177/0883073816643406
Google Scholar | SAGE Journals | ISI18. Florance, NR, Davis, RL, Lam, C, et al. Anti-N-methyl-d-aspartate receptor (NMDAR) encephalitis in children and adolescents. Ann Neurol. 2009;66(1):11-18. doi:10.1002/ana.21756
Google Scholar | Crossref | Medline | ISI19. Leypoldt, F, Titulaer, MJ, Aguilar, E, et al. Herpes simplex virus-1 encephalitis can trigger anti-NMDA receptor encephalitis: case report. Neurology. 2013;81(18):1637-1639. doi:10.1212/WNL.0b013e3182a9f531
Google Scholar | Crossref | Medline20. Nosadini, M, Mohammad, SS, Corazza, F, et al. Herpes simplex virus-induced anti-N-methyl-d-aspartate receptor encephalitis: a systematic literature review with analysis of 43 cases. Dev Med Child Neurol. 2017;59(8):796-805. doi:10.1111/dmcn.13448
Google Scholar | Crossref | Medline21. Burr, T, Barton, C, Doll, E, Lakhotia, A, Sweeney, M. N-Methyl-d-aspartate receptor encephalitis associated with COVID-19 infection in a toddler. Pediatr Neurol. 2021;114:75-76. doi:10.1016/j.pediatrneurol.2020.10.002
Google Scholar | Crossref | Medline22. Cavaliere, E, Nosadini, M, Pelizza, MF, Ventura, G, Toldo, I, Sartori, S. Anti-NMDAR encephalitis preceded by non-herpetic central nervous system infection: systematic literature review and first case of tick-borne encephalitis triggering anti-NMDAR encephalitis. J Neuroimmunol. 2019;332:1-7. doi:10.1016/j.jneuroim.2019.03.011
Google Scholar | Crossref | Medline23. Chourasia, N, Watkins, MW, Lankford, JE, Kass, JS, Kamdar, A. An infant born to a mother with anti–N-methyl-d-aspartate receptor encephalitis. Pediatr Neurol. 2018;79:65-68. doi:10.1016/j.pediatrneurol.2017.11.010
Google Scholar | Crossref | Medline24. Matoq, AA, Rappoport, AS, Yang, Y, O’Babatunde, J, Bakerywala, R, Sheth, RD. Anti-NMDA-receptor antibody encephalitis in infants. Epilepsy Behav Case Rep. 2015;4:99-101. doi:10.1016/j.ebcr.2015.07.005
Google Scholar | Crossref | Medline25. Hilderink, M, Titulaer, MJ, Schreurs, MWJ, Keizer, K, Bunt, JEH. Transient anti-NMDAR encephalitis in a newborn infant due to transplacental transmission. Neurol Neuroimmunol Neuroinflamm. 2015;2(4):e126. doi:10.1212/NXI.0000000000000126
Google Scholar | Crossref | Medline26. Scott, O, Richer, L, Forbes, K, et al. Anti–N-methyl-d-aspartate (NMDA) receptor encephalitis: an unusual cause of autistic regression in a toddler. J Child Neurol. 2014;29(5):691-694. doi:10.1177/0883073813501875
Google Scholar | SAGE Journals | ISI27. Papetti, L, Salfa, I, Vigevano, F, Valeriani, M. Autoimmune encephalitis in children. J Pediatr Infect Dis. 2019;14(01):006-010. doi:10.1055/s-0037-1620267
Google Scholar | Crossref28. Gable, M, Glaser, C. Anti-N-methyl-d-aspartate receptor encephalitis appearing as a new-onset psychosis: disease course in children and adolescents within the California Encephalitis Project. Pediatr Neurol. 2017;72:25-30. doi:10.1016/j.pediatrneurol.2017.01.023
Google Scholar | Crossref | Medline29. Ursitti, F, Roberto, D, Papetti, L, et al. Diagnosis of pediatric anti-NMDAR encephalitis at the onset: a clinical challenge. Eur J Paediatr Neurol. 2021;30:9-16. doi:10.1016/j.ejpn.2020.12.004
Google Scholar | Crossref | Medline30. Lin, JJ, Lin, KL, Hsia, SH, et al. Anti-N-methyl-d-aspartate receptor encephalitis in Taiwan—a comparison between children and adults. Pediatr Neurol. 2014;50(6):574-580. doi:10.1016/j.pediatrneurol.2014.01.049
Google Scholar | Crossref | Medline31. Zhang, J, Ji, T, Chen, Q, et al. Pediatric autoimmune encephalitis: case series from two Chinese tertiary pediatric neurology centers. Front Neurol. 2019;10:906. doi:10.3389/fneur.2019.00906
Google Scholar | Crossref | Medline32. Hacohen, Y, Wright, S, Waters, P, et al. Paediatric autoimmune encephalopathies: clinical features, laboratory investigations and outcomes in patients with or without antibodies to known central nervous system autoantigens. J Neurol Neurosurg Psychiatry. 2013;84(7):748-755. doi:10.1136/jnnp-2012-303807
Google Scholar | Crossref | Medline33. Damato, V . Diagnostic algorithms in autoimmune encephalitis. Neuroimmunol Neuroinflamm. 2016;3(4):93. doi:10.20517/2347-8659.2015.43
Google Scholar | Crossref34. Zuliani, L, Nosadini, M, Gastaldi, M, et al. Management of antibody-mediated autoimmune encephalitis in adults and children: literature review and consensus-based practical recommendations. Neurol Sci. 2019;40(10):2017-2030. doi:10.1007/s10072-019-03930-3
Google Scholar | Crossref | Medline35. Graus, F, Titulaer, MJ, Balu, R, et al. A clinical approach to diagnosis of autoimmune encephalitis. Lancet Neurol. 2016;15(4):391-404. doi:10.1016/S1474-4422(15)00401-9
Google Scholar | Crossref | Medline | ISI36. Herken, J, Prüss, H. Red flags: clinical signs for identifying autoimmune encephalitis in psychiatric patients. Front Psychiatry. 2017;8:25. doi:10.3389/fpsyt.2017.00025
Google Scholar37. Hara, M, Martinez-Hernandez, E, Ariño, H, et al. Clinical and pathogenic significance of IgG, IgA, and IgM antibodies against the NMDA receptor. Neurology. 2018;90(16):e1386-e1394. doi:10.1212/WNL.0000000000005329
Google Scholar | Crossref | Medline38. Mariotto, S, Gajofatto, A, Batzu, L, et al. Relevance of antibodies to myelin oligodendrocyte glycoprotein in CSF of seronegative cases. Neurology. 2019;93(20):e1867-e1872. 10.1212/WNL.0000000000008479. doi:10.1212/WNL.0000000000008479
Google Scholar39. Suppiej, A, Nosadini, M, Zuliani, L, et al. Plasma exchange in pediatric anti-NMDAR encephalitis: a systematic review. Brain Dev. 2016;38(7):613-622. doi:10.1016/j.braindev.2016.01.009
Google Scholar | Crossref | Medline40. Dalmau, J, Gleichman, AJ, Hughes, EG, et al. Anti-NMDA-receptor encephalitis: case series and analysis of the effects of antibodies. Lancet Neurol. 2008;7(12):1091-1098. doi:10.1016/S1474-4422(08)70224-2
Google Scholar | Crossref | Medline | ISI41. Breese, EH, Dalmau, J, Lennon, VA, Apiwattanakul, M, Sokol, DK. Anti-N-methyl-d-aspartate receptor encephalitis: early treatment is beneficial. Pediatr Neurol. 2010;42(3):213-214. doi:10.1016/j.pediatrneurol.2009.10.003
Google Scholar | Crossref | Medline42. Sahoo, B, Jain, M. Dilemmas and challenges in treating seronegative autoimmune encephalitis in Indian children. Indian J Crit Care Med. 2018;22(12):875-878. doi:10.4103/ijccm.IJCCM_98_18
Google Scholar | Crossref | Medline43. Irani, SR, Bera, K, Waters, P, et al. N-methyl-d-aspartate antibody encephalitis: temporal progression of clinical and paraclinical observations in a predominantly non-paraneoplastic disorder of both sexes. Brain. 2010;133(6):1655-1667. doi:10.1093/brain/awq113
Google Scholar | Crossref | Medline44. Sartori, S, Nosadini, M, Cesaroni, E, et al. Paediatric anti-N-methyl-d-aspartate receptor encephalitis: the first Italian multicenter case series. Eur J Paediatr Neurol. 2015;19(4):453-463. doi:10.1016/j.ejpn.2015.02.006
Google Scholar | Crossref |

留言 (0)

沒有登入
gif